Study Notes on Crime and Victimization

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE

Chapter 3: Understanding Crime and Victimization

  • Reference: Larry J. Siegel, John L. Worrall, Introduction to Criminal Justice, 17th Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.

The Cause of Crime

  • Criminologists: Social scientists who utilize the scientific method to investigate the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior.

  • Purpose of Study: To analyze crime patterns to assist criminal justice agents in planning and developing programs aimed at crime reduction.

  • Core Theme: The primary question guiding criminological inquiry is: "What causes people to behave the way they do?"

Choice Theory

Overview of Choice Theory (1 of 5)

  • Individuals decide to commit crimes after analyzing potential benefits against consequences.

    • Criminals are motivated/tempted to commit the crime if they foresee immediate benefits that come without substantial long-term risks.

    • A perception of high rewards coupled with low risk and high excitement increases the likelihood of committing additional crimes.

Mechanism of Choice Theory (2 of 5)

  • Rational Choice: Crime is viewed as a rational choice; a calculated decision stemming from the weighing of costs versus benefits of illegal acts.

    • The decision to engage in a specific crime is personal and informed by an evaluation of available information.

Situational Crime Prevention Techniques (3 of 5)

Examples of Crime Prevention Strategies:

  • Increase the effort required to commit the crime.

  • Enhance the risks associated with committing the crime.

  • Reduce the rewards that can be obtained through criminal acts.

  • Induce feelings of shame or guilt related to the potential crime.

  • Reduce provocation for criminal acts.

  • Remove excuses that might be used to justify criminal actions.

Deterrence Concepts (4 of 5)

  • General Deterrence: The principle that crime can be controlled by instilling fear of consequences in potential offenders.

  • Purpose: To convince criminals that committing a crime is a poor or hazardous choice due to anticipated severe repercussions.

Specific Deterrence (5 of 5)

  • Specific Deterrence: This approach involves punishing known criminals so stringently that they are dissuaded from reoffending.

    • Challenges: Often, offenders do not fear punishment, and the certainty of their arrest and subsequent punishment is low.

    • Techniques include:

    • Death penalty

    • Mandatory minimum sentences

    • Aggressive policing strategies.

Trait Theories

Overview of Trait Theories (1 of 3)

  • Suggest that crime results from inherent, uncontrollable biological or psychological traits.

  • Traits may develop at birth or shortly afterward, impacting an individual's social functioning over their life course.

Biochemical Factors (1 of 3)

  • Focus on the influence of biochemical elements on criminal behavior, which includes:

    • Environmental contaminants.

    • The impact of food products and diet.

    • Hormonal imbalances.

Neurological Factors (2 of 3)

  • Some research indicates that abnormal neurological functions stemming from neurotransmitter impairments can lead to irrational and harmful behavior.

    • Findings suggest a higher vulnerability to chronic delinquency in youths with ADHD raised in dysfunctional families.

Genetic Factors (3 of 3)

  • Modern biocriminological studies focus on heredity's role in creating crime-prone individuals.

  • Genetic predispositions may influence friendship patterns, leading individuals to associate with conventional or antisocial peers.

    • Adolescents with weak attachments to parents have been shown to be at a greater risk for engaging in delinquent behaviors.

Psychological Theories

Overview of Psychological Theories (1 of 4)

  • Suggests that the psychological anomalies or stressors experienced by individuals contribute to criminal behavior.

Psychodynamic Theory (1 of 1)

  • Some individuals may face developmental challenges that disrupt their personality balance.

    • Theorists argue that early psychological trauma may damage the ego or superego, leaving individuals unable to control their impulses.

Crime and Mental Illness (2 of 4)

  • Associated conditions include:

    • Oppositional defiant disorder.

    • Conduct disorder.

    • Clinical depression.

Cognitive Theory (3 of 4)

  • Examines how perceptions and mental representations of the world influence behavior.

Personality and Crime (4 of 4)

  • Views on criminal behavior relate to the structure of an individual’s personality, particularly:

    • Antisocial Personality Traits:

    • Failure to conform to social norms.

    • Deceitfulness.

    • Impulsivity.

    • Irritability.

    • Disregard for safety.

    • Irresponsibility.

    • Lack of remorse.

IQ and Crime

  • Studies have identified a correlation between low IQ and aggressive behavior; however, the findings are debated.

Sociological Theories

Overview of Sociological Theories (1 of 3)

  • Emphasize environmental conditions as contributing factors to criminal behavior.

    • Relate the causes of crime to social influences such as poverty and unemployment.

  • Anomie: Describes a state where societal norms and rules weaken or disappear, leading to increased crime rates.

Social Structure Theory (2 of 3)

  • Suggest that an individual's position within the socioeconomic structure affects their likelihood of committing crimes.

    • Poverty-stricken individuals are more prone to criminality as legitimate means of achieving financial or social success may not be available to them.

    • Racial Disparity and the Culture of Poverty: Lower-class societal members may develop a distinct culture, often characterized by violence.

Disorganized Neighborhoods (3 of 3)

  • The lack of community cohesion fosters youth crime and substance abuse due to:

    • Income inequality.

    • Poverty.

    • Racism and social despair.

  • Areas with weak social controls (family, school, neighborhood, and civic structures) foster deviant values and environments, leading to increased strain and criminal activity.

Social Process Theories

Overview of Social Process Theories (1 of 2)

  • Social Learning Theory:

    • Proposes that criminal behaviors and techniques are learned from close relationships with criminal peers.

    • Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory: Advocates that the attitudes and behaviors leading to crime are learned in intimate settings. The more deviant the social network, the more likely one is to engage in antisocial acts.

Social Control Theory (2 of 2)

  • Asserts that everyone possesses the potential to commit crimes; however, most remain controlled by their societal bonds. Crime manifests when these controlling forces are weakened.

  • Social Reaction/Labeling Theory: States that individuals become criminals when labeled as such by significant authorities, leading them to accept these labels as part of their identity.

Critical Criminology

  • Proposes that crime arises from social class conflicts.

    • Laws are designed by the powerful to safeguard their rights and interests.

  • State-Organized Crime: Refers to illegal acts conducted by state officials in the capacity of their governmental roles.

  • Research continues to support the critical theory perspective, including the notion that criminal justice systems may operate as tools for societal oppression.

Developmental Theories

Overview of Developmental Theories (1 of 4)

  • Life course theories suggest that events throughout an individual's life influence choices regarding crime, indicating that the causes of crime evolve as a person matures.

    • Family dynamics shape behaviors in childhood; peer influence takes precedence during adolescence; marriage and career become pivotal during adulthood.

Early Onset and General Theories (2 of 4)

  • Early Onset: The presence of antisocial behavior during early adolescence is a strong predictor of continued offending.

  • Latent Trait Theory: Belief that a master trait exists early on, influencing behavior throughout life.

  • General Theory of Crime: Suggests that variations in criminal tendencies can be attributed to the level of self-control possessed by individuals.

Life Course Theory and Trajectory Theory (3 of 4)

  • Life course theory emphasizes the dynamic nature of criminality, shaped by perceptions and experiences. A person’s criminal behavior can either improve or degrade over time.

  • Age-Graded Theory: Identifies key life events capable of steering individuals away from crime towards a conventional lifestyle.

  • Trajectory Theory: Acknowledges that there are multiple paths leading to criminality and various offender classifications.

Trajectory Theory Continuations (4 of 4)

  • Combines elements from both latent trait and life course theories.

    • Adolescent-Limited Offenders: Typical teen offenders whose delinquency decreases after reaching adulthood.

    • Life-Course Persistent Offenders: Individuals who begin committing crimes at an early age and continue into adulthood, demonstrating lifelong patterns of offending behavior.

Team Activity: Criminal Justice Jeopardy

  • Match the following theories with their explanations:

    1. Crime perceived as beneficial outweighing punishment risks = Choice

    2. Inherited delinquent traits and predicted criminality of offspring = Genetic

    3. Committing crime linked to diet and biological factors = Biochemical

    4. Early personality development's influence on long-term behavior = Psychodynamic

    5. Crime learned from exposure to deviant behavior = Social Learning

Theories of Victimization

  • Victim Precipitation Theory: Examines the role victims play in criminal incidents.

  • Lifestyle Theory: Suggests individuals may become victims due to lifestyles that expose them more to potential offenders.

  • Routine Activities Theory: Proposes that crime results from a convergence of three elements: motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians.