Comprehensive International Relations and the Theory of State Systems
Realism and Liberalism: Foundations of International Relations
Human Nature and International Relations (IR):
The study of IR often begins with the assessment of human nature and whether it dictates the behavior of nations.
Realism:
Realists are primarily concerned with national security and military power.
They view human nature as inherently competitive and state that there are inherent rules or behaviors that must be managed to keep people and nations in line.
Liberalism:
Liberals generally hold a more optimistic view of human nature.
They argue that past wars occurred not because of inherent human flaws, but because institutions were structured incorrectly or corrupted.
Nations seek to cooperate as much as or more than they compete because cooperation is in their best interest.
Economics and economic relationships among countries are considered critical factors in maintaining peace.
Strategic Realism: Waltz vs. Mearsheimer
Defensive Realism (Kenneth Waltz):
Advocates that nations seek "just enough" power to maintain their security.
Nations should not seek to expand their power indefinitely because doing so upsets the balance of power and threatens other countries, leading to conflict.
Offensive Realism (John Mearsheimer):
Assumes that nations will always seek to expand their power.
The reasoning is that it is impossible to ever know exactly how much power is "enough" to guarantee absolute security against other plotting states.
Proponents (a minority in the class) argue that having more "ammunition" is always better because you never know what others are plotting.
Ethical Considerations: Alchemists and Diamonds
Synthesis between Realism and Liberalism:
D.H. Carr attempted a synthesis using the metaphor of the medieval alchemists.
He argued that while alchemists were too idealistic and failed to turn lead into gold, their efforts incentivized the study of matter, leading to the discovery of the periodic table.
Similarly, political scientists and economists may be too idealistic, but their studies reveal the fundamental nature of political "elements."
The Global Diamond Trade:
Natural vs. Lab-Grown: Lab-grown diamonds use large amounts of electricity (which some dislike) but are less expensive than those mined from the ground.
Blood Diamonds: Diamonds mined in war zones under brutal conditions where workers are exploited. These often fund armed conflicts in tribal war zones in Africa.
De Beers: A massive monopoly in the diamond market with Dutch or Belgian origins (likely Belgian, as diamond cutters are often located in Antwerp, Belgium), later taken over by a British consortium.
Political Economy: Corporations, Globalization, and Subsidies
Suez Canal History: The canal was originally dug by the French, but the British eventually took it over due to their superior financial positioning and the French lack of fiscal management.
Manufacturing and Outsourcing: Even companies with reputations for specific national engineering (e.g., Volkswagen and German engineering) often manufacture elsewhere (e.g., Mexico) to find better pricing.
State Capitalism vs. Shareholder Capitalism:
Traditional Capitalism: Corporations like General Motors must raise their own money without government subsidies.
State Capitalism (e.g., China): The government subsidizes corporations, allowing them to invest in "hot prospects" (like rare earth minerals or oil facilities) while operating at a loss now to secure long-term future profits.
Market Risks: No entity is safe from market shifts. If a cheap substitute for oil (e.g., cold fusion or distilling fuel from sand) is discovered, states heavily invested in oil facilities would face bankruptcy.
Postmodernism, Feminism, and Civilizational Conflict
Clash of Civilizations (Samuel Huntington):
Theory suggests that future conflicts will be fought over civilizational/cultural differences rather than political or economic ones.
Huntington identified types of civilizations.
Critiques: Many conflicts occur within the same civilization (e.g., Russia-Ukraine war between two Slavic Orthodox states, or Iraq-Iran between two Islamic states). Latin America is often argued to be Western rather than separate, and Africa contains highly diverse internal civilizations.
Postmodernism:
Believes there is no such thing as one objective reality or one truth; everything is constructed based on perceptions.
Essentialist Feminism:
Argues that IR is too male-centric and women are historically excluded.
Advocates for changing language to be more inclusive/feminine (e.g., renaming "seminars" to "ovulars").
Philosophical Foundations: Hobbes and Machiavelli
Thomas Hobbes:
Favored a strong monarchical government to end the "war of all against all."
Described the state of nature as "poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
Believed there is no right to revolution because ancestors signed away rights long ago for the sake of security.
Niccolò Machiavelli:
Advised rulers to protect state security above all else.
Famously stated it is "better to be feared than loved."
Derived some ideas from the infamous Roman Emperor Caligula, who used the phrase "Oderint dum metuant" (Let them hate as long as they fear).
Peace Studies and Power
Soft Power: Exerting influence through cultural means (e.g., Disney movies, rock music, Japanese fashion, K-pop like the group Blackpink, and shows like Squid Games) rather than hard military action.
Decision-Making Theory: Uses the concept of a "satisficing solution" (finding a solution that is good enough rather than perfect).
Peace Studies:
Positive Peace: The existence of political, economic, and social justice, which removes the underlying factors of war.
Negative Peace: The mere absence of war or active fighting, while the factors leading to war still exist.
Motto: "Think globally, act locally."
Current Global Events and Security Issues
Soccer and Diplomacy:
Ronaldo (or a Team USA player depending on the specific anecdote referenced) faced a red card/suspension; Donald Trump reportedly called the president of FIFA to advocate for reinstatement.
China's Ballistic Missile Test:
China launched a missile into the South Pacific, violating the Treaty of Rarotonga.
The treaty established the SPENFIZ (South Pacific Nuclear Freeze Zone).
Japan and New Zealand (which has a "nuclear allergy") expressed strong concern, though New Zealand is economically dependent on China for buying its butter and mutton ().
Russia-Ukraine Dynamics:
Russia recently bombarded Kyiv, destroying apartment blocks, likely as a response/gesture toward a meeting of NATO ministers.
NATO was originally founded to counter the USSR.
The Historical Evolution of the State System
The French Revolution and Napoleon:
Napoleon preached liberty, equality, and fraternity but became an emperor, threatening all European monarchies.
He was exiled to Elba but escaped before his final defeat at Waterloo.
Key Statesmen of the Era:
Pitt the Younger (Britain): Did not want to replace a strong France with a strong Russia.
Alexander I (Russia): Desired a liberal international order while maintaining serfdom at home.
Lord Palmerston's Quote: "England has no permanent allies, only permanent interests."
Congress of Vienna (-):
The "Big Five" reconstituted the European order: France (Talleyrand), Austria (Metternich), Russia (Alexander I), Prussia (Von Hardenburg), and Britain (Lord Castlereagh).
Established the Status Quo Ante (the situation as it was before the Revolution and Napoleon).
Led to years of peace between great powers until the Crimean War.
Crimean War (-):
Involved Russia vs. the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France.
The Ottoman Empire was known as the "sick man of Europe."
Famous results: Florence Nightingale (founder of modern nursing) and the poem "Charge of the Light Brigade."
The Road to Global Wars and the League of Nations
German Unification: Led by Bismarck, resulting in the shift from Raison d'etat to Machtpolitik (Power Politics).
World War I (-):
Defined by miserable trench warfare, the Lusitania torpedoing, and the eventual entry of the US.
Treaty of Versailles ():
Woodrow Wilson’s ideas: Open covenants, self-determination, and the League of Nations.
Failures: Created the "Polish Corridor" which incensed Germany; forced Germany to sign Article (War Guilt Clause) and pay massive reparations.
League of Nations: Required a unanimous vote to act, making it ineffective against aggressive states like Japan.
World War II and Aftermath:
The US shifted away from isolationism after Pearl Harbor.
General Douglas MacArthur led the occupation of Japan; he treated the Emperor as a subordinate for symbolic power.
Marshall Plan: Provided economic aid to Western Europe and Japan to prevent the spread of communism and create markets for US goods.
Conflict Resolution and International Organizations
Methods of Settlement: Avoidance, conquest, submission, deterrence, compromise, award/arbitration, and passive settlement.
Quincy Wright: Noted that most conflicts are resolved by becoming obsolete; a "Line of Actual Control" (LAC) eventually becomes the accepted boundary (e.g., Kashmir between India and Pakistan).
Stephen Krasner: Wrote "Organized Hypocrisy," arguing that state sovereignty has always been subject to interference by more powerful players/bankers (e.g., the Rothschilds).
Structure of the United Nations ():
Grown from to members. Montenegro () is a recent addition.
General Assembly: Broad competence but little binding power; functions through Declarations, Resolutions, and Conventions.
Security Council: members; permanent members (US, UK, France, Russia, China) with Veto Power. Decisions are theoretically binding.
Sub-Organizations:
UNESCO: Controversial due to claims of infringing on sovereignty (e.g., labeling Israel an occupying power).
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization): Accused of providing inappropriate technology to developing states.
Questions & Discussion
Student Anecdotes:
One student mentioned needing supplies due to a surprise menstrual cycle before class and using DoorDash to get items delivered to work.
Discussion of AP Test Scores: Students shared their results (s on all exams). One student discussed failing the AP Spanish audio portion despite being a native speaker because she spoke about traditions instead of healthy habits as prompted.
Another student mentioned being scared to take AP Stats due to the pass rate.
Clarification on Sovereignty: A student asked if Liberals would want a state to protect rights; the response was that Liberals often prefer international organizations over the state for rights protection.
Veto Power Mechanics: Discussion on how a single veto from the "Perm Five" can cause a resolution to fail even if the vote is -.