History of Classical and Hellenistic Greek Sculpture and Architecture

General Observations on Ancient Sculpture

• Historical Sources: Most information regarding ancient sculpture originates from European sources, specifically the writings of historians documenting artistic monuments created by artists of the Classical Era.
• Roman Statuary: It is important to note that many Roman statues are actually copies of original Greek works.
• Key Classification: Notable sculptors like Myron were distinguished for specific talents, such as being a creative sculptor of animals.

Myron ($480$ – $450$ BCE)

• Background and Education: Myron, active between $480$ and $450$ BCE, was famous for his unique artistic style. He was a student under the tutelage of Ageladas of Argos ($Agiadas$).
• Materials: He frequently utilized bronze in his artistic productions.
• Major Works:
  • Discobolus (The Discus Thrower): Represents an athlete in action.
  • Innovation in Motion: Myron provided a revolutionary solution for depicting movement in Greek statues, which significantly contributed to the evolution of Classical sculpture toward a state of perfection.
  • Animal Sculptures: He sculpted various animal statues, the most famous being "Myron's Heifer." A copy of this work is currently held in the National Library in Paris.

Polykleitos of Argos

• Origins and School: Polykleitos hailed from the city of Argos and was a student of Ageladas. He is considered the primary representative of the Peloponnesian schools and traditions in sculpture during the second half of the $5^{th}$ century BCE. Notably, he remained uninfluenced by the Attic school.
• Major Works and Specializations:
  • The Victorious Athlete: A significant amount of money was spent on this statue, which is now preserved in the Athens Museum.
  • Olympic Statuary: He specialized in sculpting statues of Olympic heroes. In the city of Olympia, the foundations for three of his statues dedicated to Olympians were discovered.
  • Materials: While most of his works were bronze, he also carved marble statues. His most famous marble work is the statue of Hera, sculpted for the Temple of Argos in $423$ BCE.
• Artistic Principles: He relied on the principle of balance (Symmetry/Counterpoise) in his statues, manifested in the opposing movements of the upper and lower sections of the body.

Phidias: The Superhuman Giant

• Origins: Phidias was a Greek artist born in Athens in $490$ BCE. He was a student of Ageladas.
• Major Works:
  • Athena Promachos (The Warrior): Sculpted between $460$ and $452$ BCE. It was a bronze statue placed on the Acropolis in Athens, standing at a height of $30$ feet. It was considered the largest statue in Athens.
  • Casting Genius: Phidias possessed a unique genius for creating plaster molds for giant statues, surpassing all other artists of his time.
  • Athena Parthenos: Multiple copies of this statue exist. Historical accounts regarding his end vary; some state he was exiled, while others claim he was buried in Athens.

Scopas: The Radiant Architect and Historian

• Background: Born in $420$ BCE, Scopas gained extensive experience from his father, the sculptor Aristander.
• Classification of Works: Art historians categorize his works into three divisions:
  1. Dated works.
  2. Undated works.
  3. Works attributed to him.
• Dated Works:
  • He supervised the reconstruction of the city of Athens after the war, following the year $395$ BCE.
  • He sculpted marble statues, the most famous being the statue of Asclepius.
  • He supervised the construction of the Temple of Artemis in the city of Ephesus.
• Undated Works:
  • A marble statue of Hercules.

Praxiteles: The Sensitive Romantic Artist

• Chronology: Born in Athens during the late $5^{th}$ century BCE and early $4^{th}$ century BCE.
• Scope of Work: He sculpted numerous statues for various Greek cities, the coast of Asia Minor, and Italy.
• Artistic Style: He introduced a new Attic artistic trend characterized by precise delicacy and the depiction of subtle "vibrations" of the psychological life. He moved away from depicting powerful, harsh deities, focusing instead on statues symbolizing youth, beauty, and tenderness.
• Materials: He utilized both marble and bronze.
• Major Works:
  • Dated Works: The Altar of Artemis in Ephesus.
  • Undated Works: The marble statue of Aphrodite of Knidos and a statue of Hermes.
  • Attributed Works: The statue of the "Marathon Youth," named after the location where it was discovered in the Bay of Marathon in $1935$. It is currently preserved in the Athens Museum.
• Characteristics: His statues are characterized by a sense of stability (non-movement), though he relied on the principles of the Classical school for some of their poses and gestures.

Lysippos: The Sculptor of Alexander

• Origins: He was the most famous sculptor from the city of Sicyon, located northwest of Corinth.
• Relationship with Alexander the Great: His fame is closely tied to Alexander of Macedon. Alexander allowed only Lysippos to sculpt his facial features, as the artist was able to highlight the "lion-like" qualities in the King's appearance.
• Output: He sculpted more than $1500$ statues.
• Career Timeline: Upon Alexander's accession to the Macedonian throne in $336$ BCE, Lysippos became his preferred sculptor until Alexander's death in $332$ BCE (referencing the specific period mentioned).
• Major Works and Representations:
  • Alexander Portraits: He produced numerous busts. The best copies are Roman, including a version kept in the Louvre Museum in Paris, which depicts Alexander's hair braided in large locks resembling a lion's mane.
  • The Victorious Athlete: A bronze statue sculpted for one of the princes of the Thrace province. Copies of this statue are kept in the Museum of Art in Greece.
  • Military Commemoration: He created a group of over $30$ statues to immortalize the Battle of Granicus ($334$ BCE), including a statue of Alexander surrounded by his cavalry and infantry commanders.
  • Seleucus I: He also sculpted a statue of Seleucus I, the founder of the Seleucid Empire.

Hellenistic Architecture and Urbanism

• The Phenomenon of City Building: Establishing new cities was a hallmark of the Hellenistic era. The primary reasons for building these cities in territories controlled by Alexander were:
  1. To provide housing and residential centers for the Greek elements accompanying Alexander and his successors.
  2. A general conviction, particularly among the Seleucids, of the superiority of Greek civilization over the civilizations of other nations. They relied on Greeks and Macedonians to serve as a support base by establishing settlement centers.
• Objectives of Settlement Centers:
  • To give the state a distinctly Hellenistic character.
  • To prepare an environment enabling their primary supporters to rule and advance the empire while preventing them from being absorbed into Eastern societies.
  • To serve as strategic support points to maintain and protect their control.
  • To act as "radiation centers" for Greek culture, aimed at Hellenizing the local population to increase the number of supporters for the ruling class, thereby making culture a tool for unity among the diverse elements of the Hellenistic world, particularly in the Seleucid lands.

Major City Builders of the Hellenistic Era

• Alexander the Great and Seleucus I: These two were the most prolific city builders in history.
• The Works of Seleucus I: The historian Appian attributes the founding of more than $30$ cities to him, including:
  • $16$ cities named Antioch (after his father Antiochus).
  • $9$ cities named Seleucia (after himself).
  • $4$ cities named after his mother.
  • $5$ cities named Apamea (after his wife Apamea).
• Motivational Factors: The primary reason Seleucid urban planning surpassed that of their neighbors, the Ptolemies, was the sheer vastness of the Seleucid Empire and the diversity of its natural and human components.