Charles I (1625-1640)
Charles’ aims and problems in 1625
“A prince bred in parliaments” (rudyerd), optimism for new King, Charles considered protestant, due to breaking marriage negotiations with Spain. First heir of throne with direct experience participating in English Parliament before succession as King
Spanish Match had been controversial due to being Catholic match, led to relaxation of penal laws concerning Catholics (recusancy fines). French not willing to intervene in Palatinate crisis (Truce of Ulm - protestant union declared neutrality, and ceased supporting Frederick).
Relations with Parliament and the impact of foreign policy
1625 Parliament - Charles wants more money, due to being promised to James for war in Spain, but Commons worried that money in 1624 was wasted. Charles then claimed Parliament were reason for conflcit against Habsburgs, so Parliament voted for 2 subsidies, which wasnt enough. Led to dissolution of Parliament. Charles and Buckingham wanted joint expedition to Spain, Common launched enquired and this led to Buckingham being criticised. Subject cynical towards Buckingham, decreasing popularity of James within Parliament. Charles against this due to Buckingham being “favourite” Worries that penal laws on Catholics had been relaxed due to Charles having a Catholic wife. Lot of Parliament was based on religious concerns, Commons didnt like Montagu being appointed as royal chaplain, Charles was called “animating of the popish party”
1626 Parliament - Voted there subsidies and three fifteenths to redress grievances, due to the anxieties of members of the commons. raised prerogative taxation and forced loan as a result of refusing to create a new parliament after the dissolution. Parliament was called as a result of disastrous finacnial position due to Buckinghams expedition to Cadiz. Parliament wished to impeach Buckingham due to his defense of Montagu, and his foreign policy failures. Charles dissolved Parliament in order to protect Buckingham. Attempted to remove six members of commons who were regarded as “Ill affected” due to being against Buckingham. Parliament refused to cooperate until James reinstalled Digges and Eliot. Defenders of Buckingham promoted to privy council. Buckingham defended montagu and anti-calvinists at York House conference in mid Feb. English naval squadron had been lent to France to destroy French Calvinist Huguenots. Buckingham and Charles showed favour to anti-calvinist churchmen. Called “scarcely better than Papists”.
1628 Parliament - No possibility of another forced loan, as legality too widely question. 5 subsidies voted in principle under guidance of moderate members of the council. Supply withheld until Charles gave satisfactory answer to Petition of Right, then 5 subsidies voted. Buckingham led Ile de Re expedition, initially avoided as subject, and then blamed. King Charles refuses to answer blames. “Crisis of Parliaments”, fear of abuse of prerogative (forced loan). harsh punishments for loan refusers.
1629 Parliament- Buckingham had been assassinated (“grievance of grievances” removed). Charles collecting tonnage and poundage and imprisoning refusers. Judges concerned about legality of taxation, particularly towards the confiscation of goods of 5 merchants. Parliament was then adjourned for 5 days, and then another 15. Speaker held down in chair, declaration read calling innovation of collection of tonnage and poundage “capital enemy of this kingdom and commonwealth”. dissolved parliament. Promotions of numerous Arminians in late 1628, leaders of house of commons divided on nature of religion, and appointed committee to consider state of church, requested that Charles promoted “Learned, pious and orthodox men”.
Buckingham
Charles I very close with Buckingham, brotherly relationship. In Parliament’s, Buckingham was often blamed, due to both fault of his own (e.g. leading Il de Re expedition), but also the majority of grievances were blamed on Buckingham. War was blamed on Buckingham, and attempted to be impeached in 1626 parliament. This decreased the authority of Charles, as he felt he had to protect Buckingham. Buckingham was assassinated in 1629 by Felton, in Portsmouth, due to pamphlets spread about Buckingham’s incompetence.
Financial problems
At the beginning of his reign, Charles was set on embarking on war with Spain. Parliament were unwilling, particularly due to the distrust in the foreign policy of Charles and Buckingham. This led to the withholding of subsidies, both through redress before supply, but also overall unwillingness to go to war. This led to Charles starting the Forced Loan (1627), which was incredibly unpopular. Raised prerogative taxation in 1626. Charles was also imprisoning refusers of Tonnage and Poundage, which led to the events of the Parliament of 1629.
The dissolution of Parliament in 1629
Began Personal Rule (eleven years of governing without Parliament). Reasons for the dissolution
Financial conflict - Charles repeatedly raised money without parliamentary consent, through tonnage and poundage (which had only been granted for a year), forced loan, and ship money. Parliament believed that Charles was acting above the law.
Petition of Right (1628) - Parliament forced Charles to accept, stated no taxation without consent, no arbitrary imprisonment, no billeting of soldiers, no martial law in peace time. accepted publicly then ignored it.
Religious Tensions - support for Arminianism, promotion of William Laud (feared as Catholic, actually Arminian), marriage to Henrietta Maria (French Catholic), censorship of puritan preaching.
Commons Revolt (2 March 1629) - John Flinch tried to obey King's order of dissolution, MPs hold him down, rush three resolutions (anyone promoting Arminianism is enemy of Kingdom, anyone advising the king to collect Tonnage and Poundage is enemy of Kingdom, anyone paying this tax is betraying liberties of England). Leads to Charles dissolving parliament eight days later, arresting leading MPs (Eliot, Holles), and imprisons some without trial [against habeus corpus
Personal rule and the reasons for embarking on personal rule
During personal rule, Charles led a small government, with privy council, meeting over a thousand times. Close envolvement from Charels, who participated fully and prepared carefuly, due to aiming for reformation of government. Devolution to local areas key policy, with nobility being forced to leave London (charged Palmer £1000 for remaining in London) as required a license to remain in London. Books of Orders given to local nobility and Justices of the Peace to resolve immediate problems. Met with different levels of cooperation dependent on local officials. North and West of England seemed least satisfied by the Books.
Financial policies and reactions to them
Key Fact - by 1637, Charles was bringing in annual revenue of over £1 million, 50% higher than when he ascended the throne.
Financial policies - need to gain money, both for war, but also royal dept had reached £2,000,000. New book of rates (1635), raised average duty on commodities /year from £270,000 to £425,000 in second half of 1630s. Ship money expanded to whole country, and changed from being raised every few decades, to every year from 1634-39, raising around £200,000 a year.
Reactions to financial policies - most were implemented through local governments, and majority of areas agreed to pay. HOWEVER - ship money widely unpopular, particularly when increased in 1639, as Charles began to prepare for war with Scotland. Those who refused to pay were distrained.
Lauds religious policies and the reaction to them
Laudian reforms to the Church - movement of alter to from tablewise to altarwise, which included railing off the table. Made it seem as minister is closer to God than people. Laudians had more elevated idea of priests. Seen as a “popish plot”, perceived as Catholic. In Scotland, attempted to impose book of Prayer (form of liturgical worship), archbishop of St Andrews read the new prayer book on 23rd of July 1637
Reaction - 80% of parishes had a table in alterwsie position by 1640, successful, but very narrow reform. In Scotland, violent scenes at royal mile, Kirk had to be cleared by force, led to abolition of episcopacy in Scotland. Rioting in London also began, (1640), Lauds diary states “500 of these rascal rioters”, “continued there full two hours”. 11 May 1640, 500 attacked Lambeth Palace and stormed St Pauls, stating “no bishops or high commission”. Essex milita smashed stained glass at Hadham, and burnt rails at Chelmsford, Great Holland, St Osyth, Ickleton, Radwinter. MP (Harbottle Grimston) 1640 stated Laud was a “viper” who was trying to “distil his poison” into the King’s “sacred ears”
Wentworth and the policy of Thorough in England and Ireland
Wentworth - becomes MP IN 1614, disagreeing with Buckingham about royal foreign policy, in particular war with Spain. in 1626, appointed Sheriff of Yorkshire. in 1627, imprisoned for non-payment of forced loan. in 1628, was kings representative of north england, in lord president of council of north. becomes lord deputy of ireland in 1633. in 1640 becomes earl of stratford.
Thorough - aimed to make government more efficient, eliminate corruption and strengthen royal authority. charles’ attempts to increase centralized control of localities. implemented 1631 book of orders (set of instructions for sheriffs claiming responsibility and requirement of reports. reforms of militia, reserve army, coutnies ordered to maintain stores of gunpowder and shoot and improve weapons. commisoners appointed by privy council to implement these measure, which increased accountability.
Success ? - yes - demanded conformity to book of orders adn forced land owners to pay rates, helping subisidie income of people too old to work, or unemployed. no - faced opposition, sentenced people to prison for unfair reasons.
Ireland - becomes under control of english monarchy in 16th and 17th century. lord deputy represented monarchy, laud and wentworth controlled ireland, remote supervision, charles rarely showed interest (only if it benefitted england). three main religious groups (puritans (northern ireland), catholic (dublin), gaelic catholic (everywhere else)). aims in government of ireland included eradicating the budget deficit [ very successful, raised revenues from 40k to 80k, book of rates doubled customs income, increased rents on former crown land for legal titles], exerting control over irish parliament [marginally succesful, divide and rule, with new english given plantations and old english 51 concessions discussed. old english had land stripped, eliminated opposition voices, mountnorris opposed wentworth and sentenced to death in 1635], and implementing arminian reforms of the church [successful with opposition, introduced communion table at east end, vestements and 39 articles, anger at laudianism who saw it similar to catholicism, catholics angered at pressure to conform].
Scotland and the Bishops wars
outcome of new prayer book - riot in St Giles Cathedral (led by William Annan, lucky to survive), Priests knew of the opposition to it and took pistols to church with them. The privy council was forced to abandon Edinburgh (1637). Charles reponse, issues new proclamation that makes it treason to protest against the new prayer book (Feb 1638). National covenant formed by small group in Scottish Parliament, known as the Tables. Tables draw up covenant in February 1638. Promise by people of Scotland that they would not comply with innovations to Kirk. Signed by hundreds of thousands. Charles responds with intent to not accept this.
Bishops war begins in Apr 1639. Covenanters mobilise rapidly, and were well trained due to being battle hardened from 30 Year War. Covenantors bought weapons from Northern European protestant nations. Charged high taxation as local support was high. 12000 men in army, headed by General Alexander Leslie. Charles army mobilised slowly, with no funding due to no parliament, 15000 men, led by the Earl of Arundel and the Earl of Essex. However, Charles appoints Lord Holland into independent command of the horses and soldiers in the cavalry. Conflict led to disorganisation, and Charles army commiting robberies, riots and murders. 1st Bishop War - didn’t fight as Holland reported that the army was bigger than it actually was, so English retreated. Led to Pacification of Berwick - an agreement to dismiss armies, and Charles promise to recall the Scottish General Assembly, and Scottish Parliament
The breakdown of personal rule
Forced by the treaty of Ripon (1640), which made him pay Scots £850 day, forced him to recall Short Parliament and Long Parliament.
Long Parliament - impeaches Laud and Strafford, abolishes Ship Money and prerogative courts, passes the triennial act (1641), which ensures regular parliaments, Strafford execution emphasises end as seen as enforcer of authoritarian rule. Charles signed this death warrant showing weakness.
Grand Remonstrance - listed 20+ grievances about abuses during personal rule, led to divided parliament between more radical and more moderate members, Charles rejects this, deepening mistrust.
Main causes:
religious unrest - laudian reforms, scottish rebellion
unpopular financial policies (ship money, monopolies)
political mismanagement (alienating elites, use of force)
military failure (bishops war forced recall of parliament)