AP U.S. Government and Politics: Political Ideologies and Beliefs
Core American Values
American political culture is built upon a specific set of core values that define the relationship between the individual and the state.
Individualism: This is the concept that each person is inherently responsible for him or herself. It emphasizes the freedom of the individual to make their own choices without undue interference.
Equality of Opportunity: This value posits that every person should have an equal chance to succeed in life. However, it is fundamentally distinct from equality of outcome; while the "starting line" should be fair, the government does not guarantee that everyone will finish with the same level of wealth or success.
Free Enterprise: This refers to a mostly market-based economy where individuals have the freedom to choose what to buy and sell. It emphasizes private ownership and competition.
Rule of Law: This principle dictates that no person, regardless of their wealth, status, or government position, is above the law. Laws apply to everyone equally.
Limited Government: The power of the government is strictly limited by the Constitution. Under this value, the government is only authorized to do what the Constitution explicitly allows it to do.
Political Socialization and Demographic Effects
Political Socialization Political socialization is defined as the process by which a person acquires their specific political beliefs and overarching ideology.
The Family: This is cited as the most important source of political socialization. Children often adopt the political leanings of their parents.
Other Sources: Peers, education systems, media (traditional and social), and religious institutions also play significant roles in shaping political views.
Generational and Life Cycle Effects
Generational Effects: This refers to the different voting patterns and political beliefs observed across different age cohorts. Examples of these cohorts include Millennials, Generation X, Generation Z, and Baby Boomers. Historical events occurring during a generation's formative years (especially young adulthood) can cement specific ideological leanings.
Life Cycle Effects: This concept suggests that as individuals age, their political priorities shift based on their stage of life.
Young People: Often more focused on personal freedoms and social issues.
Older People: Typically shift focus toward economic security and specific government programs like Social Security benefits.
Globalization The U.S. political culture exists in a global context. It has both influenced the political values of other nations and been influenced by international values. This exchange is a result of increased global interconnectedness.
Public Opinion Polling
Public opinion polls are tools used to measure the collective feelings of the population on specific issues or candidates.
Types of Polls
Benchmark Poll: Usually conducted by a person considering a run for political office before their campaign officially begins. It is used to determine their current standing, identify strengths and weaknesses, and decide which issues the campaign should emphasize.
Tracking Poll: A continuous poll used to chart changes in public opinion over a period of time. A common example is the Presidential Approval Rating.
Entrance and Exit Polls: These are conducted in person with actual voters on election day. Entrance polls occur as people enter the polling place, and exit polls occur as they leave. They are used to predict election outcomes, gain insight into voter behavior, and analyze demographic voting patterns.
Scientific Validity in Polling For a poll to be considered scientifically valid, it must meet several criteria:
Random Sample: Every person in the population being studied must have an equal chance of being selected for the poll.
Sample Size: A typical scientifically valid poll requires a sample size of approximately respondents.
Stratified Sample: The population is divided into subgroups (strata) and weighted based on demographics to ensure the sample reflects the actual population. This includes maintaining the correct proportions of Democrats, Republicans, Independents, gender (Men to Women), and age groups.
Sampling Error: This is the error that arises because a sample, rather than the entire population, is being measured. A valid poll will always report a margin of error, typically \pm 3\%.
Neutral Wording: Questions must be unbiased and neutral. They cannot be "leading questions" designed to elicit a specific response.
Political Ideologies
Political Ideology is a consistent set of political values and beliefs regarding the purpose and scope of government.
Conservatives
Economy: Favor less economic regulation and lower taxes for all income levels.
Spending: Support cutting government spending on entitlement programs. They are generally less concerned with the government promoting economic and social equality.
Defense and Crime: Support increased defense spending, more police presence, and stricter punishment for crimes.
Social Values: Prioritize the protection of traditional American values and social order. They believe the government should protect these values even if it intrudes on individual freedoms. Security and safety are often viewed as more important than absolute personal social freedom.
Education: Support the use of state government money for vouchers to attend private schools, including religious institutions.
Liberals
Economy: Favor more economic regulation of markets and higher taxes on high-income earners.
Spending: Support government spending on entitlement programs to promote social and economic equality.
Defense and Crime: Favor decreased defense spending and a focus on protecting the rights of the accused.
Social Values: Believe in social freedoms and argue that the government should not regulate private, personal behavior. They prioritize private social freedoms and liberty over strong "law and order" policies.
Education: Strongly support the public education system and oppose vouchers. They fear vouchers drain support from public schools and violate the Establishment Clause if used for religious institutions.
Libertarians
Freedom: Freedom is the single most important value. They support maximum individual freedom and no government involvement in private social matters.
Economy: Support few market regulations and minimal taxation. They favor the privatization of education.
Spending: Seek minimal government spending on both social issues and defense.
Economic Policymaking
Fiscal Policy Fiscal policy refers to the government's tax and spending policies and how they impact the economy. The Executive branch (The President) and Congress are responsible for fiscal policy.
Keynesian Economics: Often supported by liberals. This theory suggests that during a recession, high unemployment, or a decrease in GDP, the government should take an active role by spending money to jumpstart the economy.
Supply-side Economics: Favored by conservatives. This theory focuses on tax cuts rather than increased spending. The goal is to allow people to keep more of their money, which they will then spend or invest to jumpstart the economy.
Free-market Economics: The Libertarian view that the government should take no action during a recession, believing the economy will eventually fix itself.
Monetary Policy Monetary policy is handled by the Federal Reserve ("The Fed"), which serves as the Central Bank of the United States. It involves controlling the money supply and interest rates to stabilize the economy.
Variable Relationship: Money supply and interest rates are inversely related ().
When interest rates fall, the money supply rises.
When interest rates rise, the money supply decreases.
The Cost of Borrowing: This relationship directly impacts how expensive it is for individuals and businesses to borrow money.
Economic Goals:
To Lower Unemployment: The Fed will lower interest rates and increase the money supply.
To Lower Inflation: The Fed will raise interest rates and decrease the money supply.
Essential Concepts and Unit Questions
How are American political beliefs formed and how do they evolve over time? Beliefs are formed through political socialization, primarily via family, but also through peers, education, and media. Critical events during young adulthood can have a lasting impact. Ideology also evolves based on life cycle effects (changing priorities as we age) and generational effects (ideological differences between cohorts, such as Millennials being more liberal than Baby Boomers). Globalization further spreads and integrates international ideals into American culture.
How do political ideology and core American values influence government policy making? Policies generally reflect a commitment to individualism, equal opportunity, free enterprise, rule of law, and limited government. However, since the U.S. is a democracy, policies shift based on who participates in the political process. Depending on the level of support for liberal or conservative ideologies at any given time, policies may tilt in one direction or the other.
How do public opinion polls influence members of Congress and election strategy? Members of Congress often follow the Delegate Model, voting according to the opinions of their constituents to ensure reelection. Polling allows candidates to identify important issues, tweak their strategy, and determine where to allocate resources like money, time, and volunteers.
Reliability and Veracity of Public Opinion Data Reliability depends on scientific validity (random/stratified sampling, sufficient size, reporting error). However, veracity (accuracy) can be compromised by the wording of questions or the order in which they are asked. Because opinions change quickly, pollsters can sometimes manipulate questions to achieve a desired result, which discredits the poll's reliability.
U.S. Political Culture and Public Policy Public policy reflects core values but shows flexibility. For instance, while Americans value individualism, the government has enacted entitlement programs for those in need. Similarly, the Equal Protection Clause has led to programs like Affirmative Action to promote equal opportunity.
Ideological Variation on Marketplace Regulation
Conservatives: Favor less regulation.
Liberals: Favor more regulation.
Libertarians: Favor minimal regulation limited to the protection of property rights.
Ideological Variation on Social Issues
Conservatives: Generally oppose needs-based entitlement programs.
Liberals: Support entitlement programs to reduce social and economic inequality.
Libertarians: Believe the government has no role in intervening in social issues.