Notes on Muslim Civilization Contributions

Dar al-Islam: A Civilization Spanning Continents

  • Dar al-Islam, or the Muslim world, stretched across three continents, from Toledo in Spain, through Arabia and Indonesia, to China and East Africa.

  • It peaked in the 12th century under the Abbasids.

  • Cities in the Middle East and Spain became global centers of culture, trade, and learning.

  • The atmosphere of tolerance and creativity fostered advances in medicine, engineering, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and architecture.

Architectural Innovations and Influences

  • Gothic Rib Vaulting (1000): The gothic ribs of the Toledo and Cordoba Mosque vaults inspired European architects in the Romanesque and Gothic movements.

  • Pointed Arch (9th Century): The pointed arch concept, fundamental to Gothic architecture, originated from Egypt's Ibn Tulun Mosque of Cairo and was transmitted to Europe via Sicily with Amalfitan merchants. It helped European architects solve problems related to Romanesque vaulting.

  • Horseshoe Arch (715): This arch, resembling a horseshoe, was first used in the Umayyad Great Mosque of Damascus. In Britain, it was known as the Moorish arch and was popular in Victorian times, often used in railway station entrances.

  • Castles (12th century): The design of castles in Syria and Jerusalem influenced Western lands, with features like round towers, arrow slits, barbicans, machicolations, parapets and battlements.

Medical Advancements

  • Al-Nuri Hospital (1156): These hospitals provided free healthcare to all. Al-Nuri hospital was well-equipped, employing druggists, barbers, orthopedists, oculists, and physicians who were examined by "market inspectors" to ensure high standards.

  • Surgical Instruments: Al-Zahrawi (936-1013) introduced over 200 surgical tools, revolutionizing medical science. These instruments are comparable to those used in modern hospitals.

  • Blood Circulation: Ibn al-Nafis (1210-1288) of Egypt first described the pulmonary circulation of venous blood passing into the heart and lungs, where it becomes oxygenated, thus arterial blood. He was accredited in 1957 with this discovery.

Contributions to Science and Mathematics

  • Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039): In a darkened room (qamara in Arabic), Ibn al-Haytham observed light coming through a small hole in the window shutters, producing an upside-down image on the opposite wall. This early pinhole camera led to the cameras of today.

  • Distillation: Jabir ibn Hayyan (722-815) perfected the distillation process with the alembic still, which is still used today. The Muslim world produced rose water, essential oils, and pure alcohol for medical use. Today, distillation has given us products ranging from plastics to gasoline.

  • Algebra: Al-Khwarizmi (780-850) introduced the beginnings of algebra, which was then developed into a form still used today.

  • Chemistry (722-815): Chemical instruments and processes that form the basis of modern chemistry were created and developed during this period. Jabir ibn Hayyan discovered important acids like sulfuric, nitric, and nitromuriatic acid, while Al-Razi set up a modern laboratory, designing and using more than 20 instruments like the crucible and still.

  • Cryptology: Al-Kindi (801-873) from Baghdad described frequency analysis and laid the foundation of cryptography.

Geography and Exploration

  • World Map: Al-Idrisi (1099-1166) was commissioned by the Norman King of Sicily, Roger II, to make a map. He produced an atlas of 70 maps called the Book of Roger, showing that the Earth was round, which was a common notion held by Muslim scholars.

  • Exploration: Ibn Battuta (1304-1368/70) traveled more than 75,000 miles in 29 years through more than 40 modern countries and compiled eyewitness accounts of customs of the medieval world.

Sociology and Economics

  • Foundation of Sociology and Economics: Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) traced the rise and fall of human societies, which he recorded in his book, Al-Muqaddimah, which forms the basis of sociology and economic theory.

Engineering and Technology

  • Water-Raising Machine: Al-Jazari's (early 13th century) greatest legacy is the application of the crank and connecting-rod system, which transmits rotary motion into linear motion. His machines raised large amounts of water automatically.

  • Trick Devices: The Banu Musa brothers, great mathematicians, funded the translation of Greek scientific treatises; they also invented fabulous trick devices that are precursors to executive toys.

Cultural Contributions

  • Coffee: Khalid, a goat herder, noticed his excitable animals had eaten red berries, which led to the early Arabic drink al-qahwa. Coffee drinking flourished across the Muslim world around the 1500s and spread to Europe through trade in 1637.

  • Shampooing: Shampooing was introduced to Britain at Brighton by Sake Dean Mohamed from Patna, India, who became the "Shampooing Surgeon" to King George IV and King William IV.

Timeline of Events and Key Figures

  • ca 722: Jabir ibn Hayyan is born; He is considered the "father of chemistry."

  • ca 777: Astronomer Al-Fazari dies.

  • 786: Caliph Harun al-Rashid establishes the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.

  • 787: Building begins of the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

  • 780: Mathematician Al-Khwarizmi is born. His book Algebr wal Muqabala developed modern algebra.

  • 785: King Offa mints a Gold Mancus coin imitating the gold dinar of Caliph al-Mansur.

  • 795: First mention of a paper mill in Baghdad.

  • 801: Al-Kindi is born. He was a mathematician, philosopher, physicist, chemist, and musician.

  • 813: Caliph Al-Ma'mun expands the House of Wisdom; the translation movement intensifies.

  • 828: Abu Mansur opens Al-Shammasiyah Observatory, near Baghdad.

  • 850: Banu Musa brothers publish their Book of Ingenious Devices.

  • 858: Astronomer Al-Battani is born. He determined astronomical measurements accurately.

  • 859: Al-Qarawiyin University in Fez is completed by Fatima al-Fihri.

  • 864: Al-Razi (Rhazes) is born. A physician, chemist, and medical teacher is considered the "father of clinical and experimental medicine." His writings were translated into Latin.

  • 872: Ahmad ibn Toloun, governor of Egypt, establishes a hospital in Cairo with a department for mental diseases.

  • 887: Abbas ibn Firnas, pioneer of unpowered flight, dies in Cordoba.

  • 880: Physician and inspector of Baghdad hospitals Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra is born. He started mobile hospital services for rural and Bedouin areas.

  • 895: Ibn al-Jazzar al-Qayrawani (Aljizar) is born, who wrote the first independent book on pediatrics and social pediatrics: Risalah fi Siyasat as-Sibyan wa Tadbirihim.

  • 913: Caliph Al-Muqtader issues the first licensing regulation for medical practice and established the hospital of Al-Muqtadiri in Bab al-Sham in Baghdad.

  • 936: Surgeon Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) is born in Cordoba - He refined surgery, invented instruments, and wrote the first illustrated surgical book.

  • 950: Al-Farabi from Baghdad dies. He was a philosopher and musician and invented the ancestor of the violin.

  • 957: Cartographer and writer Al-Masudi describes his visit to the oil fields of Baku.

  • 965: Physicist Ibn al-Haytham is born - His discoveries revolutionized optics.

  • 970: Labna, a mathematician and scientist, is appointed private secretary to Caliph Al-Hakim in Cordoba.

  • 972: Al-Azhar University is founded in Cairo.

  • 980: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is born. He wrote the influential Canon of Medicine.

  • 987: Sutaita al-Mahamli, a mathematician and expert witness in courts, dies in Baghdad.

  • 999: Building begins of Bab Mardum Mosque in Toledo, which uses a unique form of rib vaulting.

  • 1009: Astronomer Ibn Yunus dies in Cairo, leaving thousands of accurate records.

  • 1050: Constantine the African moves from Tunisia to Salerno, initiating the transfer of Islamic medicine to Europe.

  • 1065: The Nizamiyya madrasa school in Baghdad is established by Nizam al-Mulk.

  • 1066: The Norman Conquest of England begins a flow of Muslim motifs and ideas into that country.

  • 1085: Christians take Toledo and establish a center translating Arabic books into Latin. Ibn Bassal's Book of Agriculture revolutionizes farming.

  • 1091: Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) is born. He is a pioneer of experimental surgery.

  • 1096: The first Crusades begin.

  • 1099: Al-Idrisi is born and produces a world map for Norman king Roger II of Sicily.

  • 1110: Ibn Tufail, author of Hayy ibn Yaqzan, is born.

  • 1126: Ibn Rushd (Averroes) is born. He wrote philosophy and medicine.

  • 1140: Daniel of Morley travels to Cordoba to learn mathematics and astronomy, returning to lecture at Oxford.

  • 1143: Robert of Chester translates the Quran and works of Al-Khwarizmi.

  • 1145: Jabir ibn Aflah invents an observational instrument known as the torquetum.

  • 1154: Nur al-Din Zangi establishes Al-Nuri Hospital in Damascus.

  • 1185: Temple Church is built in London by the Templars, imitating the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

  • 1186: Queen Dhaifa Khatoon is born in Aleppo, Syria. She was a supporter of science and learning.

  • 1187: Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin) regains Jerusalem, establishing Al-Nasiri Hospital in Cairo.

  • 1197: Botanist Ibn al-Baytar is born in Malaga. He wrote a famous pharmacopeia.

  • 1202: Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci) introduces Arabic numerals and mathematics to Europe in his book Liber Abaci.

  • 1206: Al-Jazari completes his Book of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.

  • 1210: Ibn al-Nafis is born and first discovers pulmonary circulation.

  • 1229: Robert Grosseteste, who studied in Cordoba, becomes first chancellor of Oxford University.

  • 1233: Ibn al-Quff is born. He continued Al-Zahrawi's efforts to develop surgery.

  • 1250: Mamluk dynasty rules Egypt after the Ayyubids and later defeats the Mongols.

  • 1254: King Alfonso el Sabio establishes Latin and Arabic colleges in Seville and commissions the translation of Arabic texts.

  • 1255: Queen Eleanor brings Andalusian carpets to England in her dowry.

  • 1256: Ibn abi al-Mahasin al-Halabi writes his work on eye diseases, Al-Kafi fi al-Kuhl.

  • 1258: Mongols devastate and rule Baghdad and conquer Syria.

  • 1260: Roger Bacon publishes Secrets of Art and Nature, praising influences of Muslim scholars.

  • 1267: Marco Polo starts his 24-year journey.

  • 1284: Al-Mansuri Hospital in Cairo is completed.

  • 1293: The first paper mill outside Islamic Spain in Europe is established in Bologna.

  • 1311: The Ecumenical Council of Vienne decides to establish schools of Arabic and Islamic studies at universities.

  • 1325: Ibn Battuta leaves Tangier on his 29-year journey.

  • 1330: Giotto's painting "Madonna and Child" uses tiraz.

  • 1332: Ibn Khaldun, the "father of sociology," is born.

  • 1347: The Black Death reaches Alexandria and Cairo from Europe.

  • 1354: Emir Mohammed V builds the Lion Fountain in the Alhambra.

  • 1383: Chemist Maryam al-Zanatiyeh dies in Qarawiyin, Tunisia.

  • 1385: Serafeddin Sabuncuoglu is born and continues the work of Al-Zahrawi and Ibn al-Quff.

  • 1405: Zheng He starts his seven epic sea voyages from China.

  • 1432: Ibn Majid is born in Arabia. He was a navigator and is said to have guided Vasco da Gama from South Africa to India.

  • 1437: Ulugh Beg publishes his star catalog.

  • 1452: Leonardo da Vinci is born.

  • 1489: Koca Mimar Sinan is born.

  • 1492: Christopher Columbus lands in the New World.

  • 1497: Venice publishes a translation of Al-Tasrif by Al-Zahrawi.

  • 1513: Piri Reis constructs the earliest known map showing America.

  • 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De Revolutionibus, drawing on the work of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir.

  • 1558: The first German, and probably European, observatory is built in Kassel.

  • 1564: Galileo Galilei is born.

  • 1571: Johannes Kepler is born. He drew on the work of Ibn al-Haytham in his work on optics.

  • 1577: Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din is founded.

  • 1593: The Canon of Ibn Sina is printed in Rome and becomes a standard text in the European medical curriculum.

  • 1604: Edward Pococke is born, who translated Hayy ibn Yaqzan.

  • 1606: Edmund Castell is born, who lectured on Avicenna's medical work and compiled a dictionary of seven Asian languages.

  • 1611: Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius is born.

  • 1616: John Wallis is born, a mathematician who translated and lectured on the work of Arabic mathematicians.

  • 1627: Robert Boyle, chemist, is born.

  • 1633: Lagari Hasan Celebi flies the first manned rocket over the Bosporus.

  • 1634: King Charles I requests Arabic manuscripts.

  • 1642: Isaac Newton is born. He kept a copy of the Latin translation of Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics in his library.

  • 1652: Turks begin bringing coffee to the United Kingdom.

  • 1656: Edmund Halley is born. He translated Arabic editions of Greek mathematics and researched observations of Al-Battani.

  • 1664: The Royal Society agrees to translate the astronomical manuscript of Ulugh Beg.

  • 1678: John Greeves publishes a paper on Egyptians' use of large ovens to hatch chicken eggs.

  • 1721: Lady Mary Montagu tests smallpox inoculation in Britain, having witnessed the practice in Turkey.

  • 1725: Moroccan ambassador Mohammed Ben Ali Abgali is elected a fellow of the Royal Society in London.

  • 1729: Tripoli ambassador Cassem Aga writes about smallpox inoculation in North Africa and is elected a fellow of Royal Society in London.

  • 1796: Edward Jenner tests inoculation with cowpox.