Review Notes - Unit 1-2

Structure of Water and Hydrogen Bonding

  • Water's polarity enables it to be an excellent solvent, have high heat capacity, and exhibit cohesion and adhesion.

  • Cohesion: Attraction between water molecules, leading to surface tension.

  • Adhesion: Attraction between water molecules and other substances, essential for plant capillary action.

Elements of Life

  • Essential macromolecules: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

  • Carbon: Used for building biological molecules.

  • Nitrogen: Used for building proteins and nucleic acids.

  • Phosphorus: Used for building nucleic acids and certain lipids.

Biological Macromolecules

  • Monosaccharides are monomers of carbohydrates, include C, H, hydroxyl group, and carboxyl group.

  • Amino acids are monomers of proteins. The components are amine, carbolic acid group, and a side chain.

  • Nucleotides are monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group.

  • Fatty acids and glycerol are monomers of lipids.

  • Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.

  • Dehydration synthesis: Builds polymers from monomers by removing water.

Properties of Biological Macromolecules

  • Glycosidic bond: Bond between carbohydrate monomers.

  • Peptide bond: Bond between protein monomers, located between two amino acids (C-Terminus and N-Terminus).

  • Phosphodiester bond: Covalent bond between nucleic acid monomers, found between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of another.

  • Nucleic acids encode biological information in nucleotide sequences.

  • Proteins' primary structure (amino acid sequence) determines overall shape. Amino acids have directionality (NH2 and COOH termini).

  • Complex carbohydrates' sugar monomers determine properties/functions.

  • Lipids are nonpolar; saturation affects structure/function; saturated have single bonds, unsaturated have double bonds.

  • Phospholipids have polar heads (interact with water) and nonpolar tails (hydrophobic).

Structure and Function of Biological Macromolecules

  • Directionality influences structure and function.

  • Nucleic acids: 3’ hydroxyl and 5’ phosphates define ends; nucleotides added to 3’ end.

  • DNA: Antiparallel double helix; A-T (2 H bonds), C-G (3 H bonds).

  • Proteins: Linear chains of amino acids with covalent bonds at the carboxyl terminus.

    • Primary structure: sequence order of proteins essential amino acids/polypeptide chain

    • Secondary structure: local folding of the amino acid chain into elements such as alpha-helixes and beta-sheets

    • Tertiary structure: the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein/ interactions between R groups and often minimizes free energy

    • Quaternary structure: arises from the interactions between multiple polypeptide units/proteins

  • Carbohydrates: Linear or branched chains of sugar monomers with covalent bonds.

Nucleic Acids

  • DNA: Deoxyribose sugar, Thymine base, Double-stranded, Antiparallel 5’ to 3’ and 3’ to 5’.

  • RNA: Ribose sugar (extra OH), Uracil base, Single-stranded, 5’ to 3’.

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Ribosomes

  • Consist of RNA and proteins, with large and small subunits.

  • Synthesize proteins.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

  • Rough ER: transports proteins made on its attached ribosomes. Compartmentalizes the cell.

  • Smooth ER: synthesizes lipids.

Golgi Bodies

  • Modifies, folds, and packages proteins into vesicles for transport.

Mitochondria

  • Double membrane, produces ATP.

Lysosome

  • Contains hydrolytic enzymes, breaks down cell parts.

Vacuole

  • Stores nutrients, waste, and water; maintains turgor pressure in plants.

Chloroplast

  • Converts light energy into chemical energy (photosynthesis).

Cell Structure and Function - Organelles

  • ER provides support, protein synthesis, and intracellular transport.

  • Mitochondria's double membrane compartment for Krebs Cycle reactions.

  • Lysosomes have hydrolytic enzymes for digestion and apoptosis.

  • Vacuoles store macromolecules, waste; maintain plant turgor pressure.

Water's polarity enables it to be an excellent solvent, have high heat capacity, and exhibit cohesion and adhesion.
Cohesion: Attraction between water molecules, leading to surface tension.
Adhesion: Attraction between water molecules and other substances, essential for plant capillary action.

Elements of Life
Essential macromolecules: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
Carbon: Used for building biological molecules.
Nitrogen: Used for building proteins and nucleic acids.
Phosphorus: Used for building nucleic acids and certain lipids.

Biological Macromolecules
Monosaccharides are monomers of carbohydrates, include C, H, hydroxyl group, and carboxyl group.
Amino acids are monomers of proteins. The components are amine, carbolic acid group, and a side chain.
Nucleotides are monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group.
Fatty acids and glycerol are monomers of lipids.
Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.
Dehydration synthesis: Builds polymers from monomers by removing water.

Properties of Biological Macromolecules
Glycosidic bond: Bond between carbohydrate monomers.
Peptide bond: Bond between protein monomers, located between two amino acids (C-Terminus and N-Terminus).
Phosphodiester bond: Covalent bond between nucleic acid monomers, found between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of another.
Nucleic acids encode biological information in nucleotide sequences.
Proteins' primary structure (amino acid sequence) determines overall shape. Amino acids have directionality (NH2 and COOH termini).
Complex carbohydrates' sugar monomers determine properties/functions.
Lipids are nonpolar; saturation affects structure/function; saturated have single bonds, unsaturated have double bonds.
Phospholipids have polar heads (interact with water) and nonpolar tails (hydrophobic).

Structure and Function of Biological Macromolecules
Directionality influences structure and function.
Nucleic acids: 3’ hydroxyl and 5’ phosphates define ends; nucleotides added to 3’ end.
DNA: Antiparallel double helix; A-T (2 H bonds), C-G (3 H bonds).
Proteins: Linear chains of amino acids with covalent bonds at the carboxyl terminus.Primary structure: sequence order of proteins essential amino acids/polypeptide chain
Secondary structure: local folding of the amino acid chain into elements such as alpha-helixes and beta-sheets
Tertiary structure: the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein/ interactions between R groups and often minimizes free energy
Quaternary structure: arises from the interactions between multiple polypeptide units/proteins
Carbohydrates: Linear or branched chains of sugar monomers with covalent bonds.

Nucleic Acids
DNA: Deoxyribose sugar, Thymine base, Double-stranded, Antiparallel 5’ to 3’ and 3’ to 5’.
RNA: Ribose sugar (extra OH), Uracil base, Single-stranded, 5’ to 3’.

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function
Ribosomes
Consist of RNA and proteins, with large and small subunits.
Synthesize proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER: transports proteins made on its attached ribosomes. Compartmentalizes the cell.
Smooth ER: synthesizes lipids.
Golgi Bodies
Modifies, folds, and packages proteins into vesicles for transport.
Mitochondria
Double membrane, produces ATP.
Lysosome
Contains hydrolytic enzymes, breaks down cell parts.
Vacuole
Stores nutrients, waste, and water; maintains turgor pressure in plants.
Chloroplast
Converts light energy into chemical energy (photosynthesis).
Cell Structure and Function - Organelles
ER provides support, protein synthesis, and intracellular transport.
Mitochondria's double membrane compartment for Krebs Cycle reactions.
Lysosomes have hydrolytic enzymes for digestion and apoptosis.
Vacuoles store macromolecules, waste; maintain plant turgor pressure.