The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877

FIGURE 16.1 Political Cartoon Analysis

  • Thomas Nast's political cartoon appeared in Harper’s Weekly in October 1874.

  • Depicts the "White League" shaking hands with the Ku Klux Klan over a shield.

    • Shield shows a couple weeping over a baby.

    • Schoolhouse burning in the background.

    • Lynched freedman hanging from a tree.

  • Labeled above the shield: "Worse than Slavery."

  • Text reads: "The Union as It Was: This Is a White Man’s Government."

INTRODUCTION

  • The period following the Civil War, specifically from 1865 to 1877, was marked by significant turmoil and transformation in the U.S.

  • Key events during this era:

    • Murder of one president (Lincoln) and impeachment of another (Johnson).

    • Major constitutional revisions with three amendments added.

  • The backlash against efforts for equality and the imposition of Union control in the South manifested through violent groups like the Ku Klux Klan.

  • This era is known as Reconstruction, which ultimately faltered and failed.

  • The political cartoon symbolizes the anguish many Americans felt post-Civil War due to the South's catastrophic losses, political independence, and economic devastation.

16.1 Restoring the Union

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Describe Lincoln’s plan to restore the Union.

  • Discuss the tenets of Radical Republicanism.

  • Analyze the success or failure of the Thirteenth Amendment.

FIGURE 16.2 Overview of the Reconstruction Era

  • Marked the reintegration of former rebel Southern states back into the Union.

  • President Lincoln proposed a non-punitive and generous plan for reunification, seeking to return these states swiftly.

  • Criticism emerged from Republicans who viewed Lincoln's approach as too lenient on former Confederates, concerning that it overlooked civil rights for formerly enslaved individuals.

  • Lincoln oversaw the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, yet he did not live to see its ratification.

THE PRESIDENT’S PLAN

  • Lincoln aimed for a swift restoration of the Union from the onset of the Civil War in 1861.

  • Introduced the Ten Percent Plan in December 1863:

    • Offered general pardons to Southerners except high-ranking officials.

    • Required 10% of the 1860 voting population in rebel states to take a binding oath of allegiance and emancipation.

    • Once these oaths were taken, states would draft new constitutions.

  • The intention behind the leniency was to expedite reunification and acceptance of emancipation.

RADICAL REPUBLICANS AND CONFLICT WITH LINCOLN

  • Radical Republicans in Congress sought harsher terms for the South and stronger protections for freed people.

    • Insisted on punishing the rebels and advocated for societal reforms in Southern states.

  • Proposed the Wade-Davis Bill (February 1864), which required a majority (not just 10%) of Rebel voters to take a loyalty oath (the Ironclad Oath), restricting political involvement for those who couldn't comply.

    • Lincoln chose to utilize a pocket veto to dismiss the bill, understanding that it would stall the reconstruction process.

THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT

  • The Thirteenth Amendment formally abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States.

  • Proposed constitutional amendment passed in Senate (April 1864) and House (January 1865).

  • Ratified by the states in December 1865.

  • First amendment added to the Constitution since 1804, representing a watershed moment in American civil rights.

LINCOLN'S ASSASSINATION

  • Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, by John Wilkes Booth, before the Thirteenth Amendment’s ratification.

  • Booth’s actions were part of a broader conspiracy aimed at continuing the Confederate struggle against the Union.

  • Lincoln's assassination propelled him to martyr status among Northerners, and intensified fears of conspiracies among former Confederates.

EMANCIPATION AND JUNETEENTH

  • Significant delay in news of the war's end reaching all enslaved individuals; many were not informed until late.

  • Juneteenth (June 19, 1865): Major General Gordan Granger declared all Texas slaves free, marking it as a day commemorating emancipation.

  • Resistance included attempts by some slaveholders to conceal this information from enslaved people.

ANDREW JOHNSON AND THE BATTLE OVER RECONSTRUCTION

  • Vice President Andrew Johnson ascended to the presidency after Lincoln's death.

  • Johnson's background:

    • Born into poverty in North Carolina, self-educated and worked as a tailor.

    • Served in various political roles, including as Tennessee's governor.

    • Became a senator, remaining loyal to the Union during the Civil War.

  • Johnson aimed to quickly restore the South without severe punishment for former Confederates, counter to Radical Republican desires.

JOHNSON'S POLICIES

  • Proposed the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in May 1865 granting amnesty to many Southerners.

  • Required Southern states to repeal ordinances of secession and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment for Union readmission.

  • Johnson's leniency alienated Radical Republicans who sought more robust reforms and protections, contributing to deepening political conflicts.

16.2 Congress and the Remaking of the South, 1865–1866

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Describe Congress's efforts from 1865–1866 in implementing their vision for Reconstruction.

  • Explain the transformative impact of the Fourteenth Amendment on the Constitution.

CONFLICT BETWEEN JOHNSON AND CONGRESS

  • Congress aimed to extend rights to freed people while Johnson proposed leniency.

  • The Freedmen's Bureau was established to assist freed people and facilitate the transition from slavery to freedom, providing food, education, and labor assistance.

BLACK CODES

  • As Johnson called an end to Reconstruction, Southern states enacted Black Codes to suppress Black civil rights and maintain White supremacy.

  • Laws varied by state, but commonly restricted voting rights, property ownership, and social participation.

CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1866

  • To counter Black Codes, Congress enacted the first Civil Rights Act, granting citizenship to African Americans and allowing federal intervention to protect those rights.

  • Johnson vetoed the Act, but Congress overrode the veto, signaling a significant increase in congressional power over the South.

FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT

  • In response to uncertainties following the Civil Rights Act, the Fourteenth Amendment was drafted to secure citizenship rights:

    • Asserts that all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. are citizens; overturns the Dred Scott decision.

    • Protects citizens' rights against state infringement and reduces congressional representation for states restricting voting rights.

    • Bars from office those engaged in rebellion unless pardoned by Congress.

16.3 Radical Reconstruction, 1867–1872

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Explain the purpose of Radical Reconstruction and legislation instituted by Congress.

  • Describe the impeachment of President Johnson.

  • Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of the Fifteenth Amendment.

RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION AND THE RECONSTRUCTION ACTS

  • Radical Republicans gained control in Congress post-1866 elections due to opposition to Johnson.

  • Led to the Military Reconstruction Act (1867), dividing the South into military districts to ensure protection of freed people and oversight of elections.

  • Congressional measures aimed at creating an equitable society and ensuring political and civil rights for freedmen.

IMPEACHMENT OF JOHNSON

  • Johnson's actions against Congressional measures led to his impeachment.

  • The Tenure of Office Act was pivotal, as he removed Secretary of War Stanton, violating the Act, thus prompting impeachment proceedings.

  • Articles of impeachment stemmed from Johnson's disregard for Congress's authority.

  • Johnson survived impeachment by one vote, but his political effectiveness was severely undermined.

16.4 The Collapse of Reconstruction

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Explain reasons for the collapse of Reconstruction.

  • Describe efforts by Southern “Redeemers” to reverse Reconstruction gains.

WHITE SUPREMACY AND TERRORISM

  • Paramilitary groups, primarily the Ku Klux Klan, utilized violence and intimidation against freed people and their allies to retain White supremacy post-Reconstruction.

  • Klan tactics included arson, murder, and systemic violence to deter political engagement.

THE “REDEEMERS”

  • Movement led by White southerners to restore previous social structures and diminish the advancements made during Reconstruction.

  • Redeemers exploited economic challenges and electoral fraud to reclaim political power by the late 1870s.

COMPROMISE OF 1877

  • Following the contested electoral results, political negotiations resulted in the compromise that led to the withdrawal of federal troops and cessation of Reconstruction initiatives.

  • The "Solid South" emerged as a political entity, dominated by the Democratic party advocating for White dominance.

KEY TERMS

  • Black codes: Discriminatory laws in Southern states to maintain White supremacy.

  • Carpetbagger: Northerners accused of exploiting the South post-war for political or economic gain.

  • Compromise of 1877: Agreement that concluded Reconstruction by withdrawing federal troops from the South.

  • Freedmen’s Bureau: Established in 1865 to assist freed people.

  • Ku Klux Klan: White supremacist organization that used violence to oppose Reconstruction.

  • Radical Republicans: Group advocating for strong measures against the South during Reconstruction.

SUMMARY

  • Lincoln’s initial goal was prompt reunification post-Civil War. His lenient approach conflicted with Radical Republicans' vision for equality.

  • The contentious relationship between Johnson and Congress shaped Reconstruction leading to pivotal amendments and laws aimed at securing freedoms for formerly enslaved individuals.

  • Eventually, the dismantling of Reconstruction efforts culminated in the restoration of White supremacy via terrorism and political maneuvering, culminating with the Compromise of 1877.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

  1. C. reunifying the country

  2. A. securing civil rights for formerly enslaved people

  3. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, contrasting with the Emancipation Proclamation which only declared slaves in rebel states free.

  4. A. collecting taxes

  5. D. Radical Republicans in Congress

  6. Maintain social and economic structures of racial slavery.

  7. B. pass the Fifteenth Amendment

  8. D. the Tenure of Office Act

  9. Benefits included extended voting rights to Black men; drawbacks left loopholes for voter suppression.

  10. B. petitioning Congress

  11. A. scalawag

  12. Challenges included systemic racism, lack of resources, and exploitative economic systems.
    13-17. (Critical thinking questions inviting deeper analysis.)