Learning

Definition: Learning is described as lasting change caused by experience, and it has to be inferred from behavior rather than being directly observed.
Research Basis: Most of our research in learning comes from studies involving animals.

Associative Learning: Learning that involves making connections between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response.
- Classical Conditioning: A learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
- Operant Conditioning: A type of associative learning where behavior is modified depending on its consequences.
Non-Associative Learning: Involves a change in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
- Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
- Dehabituation: The recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation.
- Desensitization: A process where a person becomes less responsive to a stimulus over time after repeated exposure.

Definition: Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli, leading to a learned response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus after being paired with it.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning (e.g., food).
Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UR): A response that occurs naturally and does not need to be learned (e.g., salivation in response to food).

Jonathan's Example: Jonathan loves spicy food.
- US: Hot spices (food)
- UR: Perspiration from eating spicy food
- CS: Driving past the restaurant
- CR: Perspiring profusely upon seeing the restaurant
Jeremiah's Example: Jeremiah, at six months, begins to drool in response to the microwave bell.
- US: The microwave (bell sound)
- UR: Drooling
- CS: The bell of the microwave
- CR: Drooling in response to the bell sound

Acquisition: The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship, where the more pairings between the CS and US, the stronger the association. Rapid acquisition occurs with a half-minute delay between CS and US.
Extinction: The reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the CS alone.
Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of a conditioned response after extinction has occurred.

Stimulus Generalization: Occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response.
Stimulus Discrimination: The tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical.

Compensatory Response: A learned response that may trigger drug tolerance and could be involved in drug overdoses.
- The greater the compensatory response, the larger the drug dose required to achieve the desired effect.

Definition: A type of associative learning where behavior is modified based on its consequences, also known as instrumental conditioning.

Reinforcement: Involves consequences following a behavior that affect the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
- Positive Reinforcement: Presentation of a pleasant consequence to increase the likelihood of a behavior.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response increases the likelihood of that behavior.
Punishment: Involves discouraging a behavior through consequences.
- Positive Punishment: Presentation of an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behavior’s occurrence.
- Negative Punishment: Removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior.

Positive: Adding something (e.g., praise, yelling).
Negative: Taking something away (e.g., relieving a headache or removing privileges).

Continuous Reinforcement: When a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, leading to quicker learning.
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement: When a behavior is reinforced only sometimes, resulting in slower acquisition but also making it more difficult to extinguish.

Ratio Schedule:
- Fixed Ratio Schedule: Behavior reinforced after a specific number of responses, showing a high response rate with pauses after reinforcement.
- Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses, resulting in a consistently high response rate.
Interval Schedule:
- Fixed Interval Schedule: Behavior reinforced for the first response after a specific amount of time has passed.
- Variable Interval Schedule: Behavior reinforced for the first response after an average but unpredictable amount of time has passed.

Habituation: A process where there is a weakening of response to a stimulus after its repeated presentation.
Dishabituation: Recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation.
Sensitization: A strong stimulus leads to an exaggerated response to a weaker stimulus.

Timing: Multiple exposures to material over time can significantly enhance the learning process.
Context: Studying in various locations increases the likelihood of forming robust memories.

Some types of learning can occur without awareness, while awareness and attention generally enhance learning processes.
There are automatic attentional processes in reactions to distinct stimuli, and sometimes active searching is necessary to identify relevant stimuli.

Studies show that students using social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook while studying tend to achieve lower grades than those who do not.
The use of social media in the classroom negatively impacts both individual learning and that of peers.

Sleep deprivation impairs attention and learning abilities.
It also inhibits the process of transferring learned information into more permanent long-term memory storage.