Altruism and the Rescue of Jews During the Holocaust

Introduction to the Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust

The lecture focuses on the theme of "saving juice" (saving Jews). Despite the pervasive darkness, horror, and inhumanity associated with the Holocaust, there were specific individuals and groups that transcended hatred to make ethical choices. These rescuers took immense risks to do the right thing. The study of these choices highlights how individual actions can significantly impact and improve the world. The lecture categorizes rescue efforts into three distinct forms: efforts by nations, efforts by groups, and efforts by individuals.

Barriers and Risks of Rescuing

Rescuing Jews was a formidable task due to several systemic factors. First, the Nazi regime made every effort to keep the Holocaust a secret. Many people were under the impression that those being deported were simply being sent to work camps to contribute to the German war economy, unaware of the existence of extermination centers like Auschwitz and Treblinka. Second, rescue work was extremely dangerous. The Nazis were explicit that aiding Jews was a capital offense that could result in the death of the rescuer and their entire family. Third, rescue was rarely a short-term commitment. On average, a person required protection for a period of $2$ to $5$ years. This necessitated a permanent place to live and access to food, which was difficult because food was strictly rationed. Rescuers had to find ways to feed extra mouths without drawing suspicion.

Surveillance was a constant threat. Neighbors often gossiped about unusual activities in their buildings. During the Nazi period, every street was equipped with a "screen door," and every building had a superintendent. These individuals were tasked with reporting anything unusual, such as the sound of a crying baby, the arrival of unexplained food supplies, or unexpected traffic in and out of a residence. Despite these conditions, thousands of people chose to act.

Psychology and Characteristics of Individual Rescuers

Scholars have sought to identify patterns of altruism among rescuers to determine if it can be taught. Altruism is a rare quality; out of tens of millions of people in Europe, only a few thousand were willing to risk their lives. Research into these individuals reveals several common traits. Most rescuers exhibit a high degree of humility and do not view their actions as extraordinary; rather, they consider saving lives as the natural, obvious thing to do. Altruism cut across all social classes, with members of the lower, middle, and upper classes being equally capable of such acts.

National identity and religious affiliation did not serve as reliable predictors of altruistic behavior. While Daniel Goldhagen argued in his book, Hitler's Willing Executioners (written approximately $20$ to $25$ years ago), that there was a peculiar trait within the German nation, evidence shows that Germans, Poles, and people from nations like Finland and Albania were all capable of both good and bad actions. Similarly, politics was not a decisive factor. Rescuers included communists, capitalists, and individuals from both the political right and left. Even some individuals who publicly identified as Nazis provided help.

Research indicates that the most significant factor in developing altruism is childhood upbringing, particularly between the ages of $1$ and $6$. Rescuers often described their parents as having taught them the habit of righteousness, humanitarianism, and the power to care. This aligns with the $400$-year-old Jesuit principle attributed to Ignatius of Loyola: "give me a child till he's $7$ and his mind for life." Altruism is viewed as a habit formed by childhood activities like giving charity or standing up for those being bullied, rather than a genetic inheritance. Additionally, anti-Nazi sentiment played a role; those who hated the regime were more likely to assist its primary targets. Rescuers were also frequently "outsiders" in their social circles rather than popular figures like homecoming queens.

Group-Based Rescue Efforts and Organizations

Groups were often more consequential than individuals because of their collective power. In Poland, a prominent group named Zegota (spelled z e g o t a) was formed by liberal Catholics. Although they were often anti-communist and not necessarily regular churchgoers, they organized to provide housing, food, passports, and transport. It is estimated that Zegota saved between $10,000$ and $50,000$ people. Religious organizations, including various orders of nuns and the Sisters of Zion, also participated, though the behavior of bishops was more varied.

Medical professionals also contributed by adhering to the Hippocratic Oath. Doctors in various regions turned hospitals into refuges by placing signs at entrances that read "contagious," "don't enter," or "epidemic." German soldiers, fearing disease, would avoid these areas. In Rome, an island in the middle of the city that historically served as a leper colony was used as a site for such subterfuge to hide people.

In France, rescue efforts were widespread. The communist underground was active in saving lives, and notably, many members of the communist party were themselves Jewish. The Catholic Church in France also played a significant role; out of $7$ bishops, $4$ of them directly participated in rescue activities. They established networks to move Jews to safe havens in Switzerland, Italy, and Spain. Of the $450,000$ Jews in France before the war, $377,000$ were saved, representing an extraordinarily high survival rate. Local resistance also included the group known as ONE (o n e), which focused on saving hundreds of children in orphanages.

The Village of La Chambon

A famous instance of group rescue occurred in the village of La Chambon (C H A N B O N) in France. This was a Eugino (Huguenot) village. The Eugino were Protestants who had lived underground in Catholic France since the $17^{th}$ century to avoid persecution by the Inquisition. Because they understood the experience of being hunted and abandoned, they felt a moral obligation to help. Led by Trophy and his village, they saved hundreds of Jewish children and notably made no effort to convert them to Christianity. Instead, they respected Jewish traditions and even celebrated Jewish holidays with the children to preserve their identity. The village's activities were known to a local Nazi military official named Schmeling (s c m a l I n g), who chose not to betray them. Similar instances of German military or naval officials assisting the underground occurred in Denmark.

National Rescue Efforts: Italy and Holland

Italy maintained an $80-85\%$ survival rate for its Jewish population. Much of the saving was done by the Catholic community, including Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits. Even local Nazi-affiliated governors and mayors refused to participate in murders. Most of the Italian Jews lost were deported after $1943$, the year Mussolini was toppled and the Nazis took direct control of the country. Historically, Italy lacked the deadly anti-Semitism found in other regions, a trend dating back to the time of Julius Caesar. A common story illustrates the difference in national attitudes: a German officer, a French officer, and an Italian officer all receive orders to deport Jews. The German and French officers comply, but the Italian officer tears up the order, stating it is below his dignity.

In contrast, Holland had a very aggressive anti-Semitic community, resulting in the elimination of $80\%$ of its Jewish population in death camps. However, the village of Noyboulanger (Nieuwlande) stood out. The mayor, Adameyer, organized the community into rescuers. He mandated that every single household must take in a Jewish child so that no one could betray the others without being equally implicated. This collective pledge ensured that all children brought to the village were saved.

Rescue in Central and Eastern Europe

In Belgium, the underground (especially the communist branch) and members of the monarchy assisted in rescue operations. The Jewish underground destroyed community records, making it difficult for Nazis to identify Jews, who often lacked foreign accents or distinctive clothing. Approximately $55,000$ Jews were saved in Belgium.

In Finland, which was an ally of Nazi Germany due to their mutual hatred of the Russians, the government protected its $2,000$ Jews. When Hitler visited in $1943$ and suggested deportation, the Prime Minister told him, "we have no Jewish problem here." Fearing the loss of a strategic ally on the Russian border, the Nazis did not press the issue further.

Bulgaria, another Nazi ally, saved $50,000$ of its $57,000$ Jews. While King Boris's role is debated, the parliament, the mayor, and the Russian Greek Orthodox Church organized massive street protests in $1943$ against deportation. As a compromise, the Bulgarians gave up $7,000$ Jews from Macedonia and northern territories (who were not considered "real" Bulgarians), almost all of whom died, but the core Bulgarian Jewish community survived.

In Hungary, the situation was complex. There were $750,000$ Jews. Initially, the government kept them in work camps and restricted their rights but did not deport them. However, in $1944$, under intense Nazi pressure, $437,000$ Jews were deported in just $56$ days. Eventually, Admiral Hordee (Horthy) stopped the deportations in early June due to international pressure from the Vatican, the Red Cross, Britain, and the United States, saving the remaining $350,000$ people.

In Romania, the Iron Guard led by Antonetskyu initially oversaw the death of thousands of Jews in substandard camps. However, after the Battle of Stalingrad in $1943$, the government realized the Nazis would lose. Out of self-interest, they refused further deportations to avoid postwar retribution. About $350,000$ of Romania's $700,000$ Jews survived.

Albania, a majority Muslim country, has a unique record. It followed a tradition of hospitality where guests must be protected. They opened their doors to refugees, and at the end of the war, there were $2,500$ to $3,000$ Jews in the country—more than the initial $1,000$ to $1,500$. It is the only European country that had a larger Jewish population after the war than before.

Neutral Nations and Peripheral Havens

Spain and Portugal remained neutral, serving as conduits for goods and communication. General Franco of Spain, despite being a fascist, did not return Jews to Nazi authorities if they reached Spanish territory. Some gossip suggested Franco had Converso (Jewish convert) ancestry, though this is unconfirmed. About $30,000$ Jews were in Spain at the war's end. Portugal, under Salazar, saw about $20,000$ Jews survive due to total inaction and refusal to deport.

Sweden, also neutral, initially had a rigid Protestant church but twice opened its doors due to Scandinavian solidarity. They took in $7,200$ Jews from Denmark in $1943$ and between $3,000$ and $6,000$ from Norway, totaling $12,000$ to $18,000$ saved. Switzerland saved $30,000$ Jews who managed to cross the border, placing them in work camps. Much of their survival was funded by the International Rescue Association and the Joint Distribution Committee.

Unexpectedly, China and Japan also played roles. Shanghai became a refuge for several thousand Jews, where a Jewish museum and synagogue still exist. The Japanese, who were Allied with Hitler, allowed this partly because they believed the anti-Semitic myth found in the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (translated into Japanese). They believed Jews controlled the world and the American government; therefore, saving Jews was seen as a way to gain leverage with the United States as the war turned against the Axis powers.

Altogether, Yad Vashem has awarded the "Righteous of the Nations" title to approximately $15,000$ individuals who saved lives without financial benefit.