Important Notes - Exam 2 f41

Page 1: Experimental Consciousness

• Experimental Consciousness: Understanding the current and dynamic self that is subject to evolution.

  • Current Self (Present Experience):

    • Visualization of meditation: focused on breath, fully in the moment.

    • Observing thoughts without identification.

  • Dynamic Self (Evolving Sense of Self):

    • Noticing shifts in perspective through ongoing meditation over months/years.

• Self-Concept: A more stable view of oneself.

  • Example: Sarah perceives herself as a hardworking student proud of her grades, identifying as academically successful.

  • Preflected Appraisal: How others react influences self-perception.

    • Example: Children may hide emotions based on adult reactions.

  • Independent Self System:

    • Individual seen as separate and distinct in social contexts.

    • Identity formed through personal goals and achievements without relying on social roles.

Page 2: Social Identity Systems

• Interdependent Self System:

  • Identity perceived in conjunction with social relationships.

  • Defined by roles and connections with others (e.g., job titles).

  • Individuals see themselves in relation to social contexts.

• Self-Esteem: An evaluation of personal value and capability.

  • High Self-Esteem: Sense of achievement (e.g., winning an award).

  • Low Self-Esteem: Feelings of disappointment (e.g., poor test results leading to self-doubt).

  • Bandura's Self-Efficacy:

    • Belief in one's ability to execute necessary behaviors for goals.

    • Higher self-efficacy leads to resilience and confidence.

    • Example: Believing in the ability to learn coding despite initial difficulties.

Page 3: Self-Control and Social Dynamics

• Self-Control/Regulation:

  • Limited capacity and resource for resisting impulses and maintaining perseverance.

  • Can be temporarily depleted (e.g., glucose expenditure).

  • Increased practice strengthens self-regulation over time.

  • Social Outcomes: Self-regulation is linked to favorable psychological outcomes.

  • Example: Anna struggles with procrastination but uses strategies like a two-minute timer to maintain focus.

• Better than Average Effect:

  • Individuals often rate themselves as better than average in various skills.

  • False Consensus: Overestimating the commonality of one's beliefs.

    • Example: Tom believes most share his political views due to a biased social circle.

Page 4: Perceptions and Misconceptions

• False Uniqueness:

  • Underestimating the prevalence of one's successful traits.

  • Example: Emma believes her cooking skills are unique when many share similar abilities.

  • Unrealistic Optimism: Belief in lesser probability of negative outcomes despite evidence (e.g., health risks associated with fast food).

  • Barnum Effect: Agreeing with vague positive statements.

  • Multiple Choice Dilemma: Cognitive bias in answering exams (better to change answers than stick with the first choice).

• Self-Perception Theory: Inferring attitudes from one’s behavior (e.g., smiling indicates a positive mood).

  • Head Nodding: Agreement levels influenced by directional head movements.

  • Behavioral Influences: Actions like pulling or pushing affect evaluations of stimuli (e.g., favorable rating when pulling toward oneself).

Page 5: Motivation and Comparison

• Overjustification Effect: Receiving external rewards reduces intrinsic motivation.

  • Example: Ben loses interest in drawing when rewarded for it.

• Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself against others using reference groups.

  • Reference Groups: Similar individuals set standards for evaluation (e.g., Mia compares her progress to colleagues).

  • Upward Comparison: Comparing to someone better provides motivation but risks lower self-esteem.

  • Downward Comparison: Comparing to someone worse boosts self-esteem but may reduce motivation.

Page 6: Attribution and Emotional Responses

• Two-Factor Theory of Attribution:

  • Experiencing physiological arousal and interpreting that arousal determines emotional responses.

  • Example: Heart racing due to footsteps interpreted as fear or excitement based on context.

  • Misattribution of Arousal: Incorrectly attributing arousal responses to external factors (e.g., attraction during thrilling activities).

Page 7: Perception Effects

• Spotlight Effect: Overestimating how much others notice us.

  • Example: A student believes everyone is judging a coffee stain on their shirt.

  • Illusion of Transparency: The belief that others can easily read our feelings; they often do not notice subtle signs of anxiety.

  • Self-Handicapping: Creating excuses for potential failures to protect self-image.

  • False Modesty: Publicly downplaying one’s successes while valuing others’ achievements.

Page 8: Self-Esteem and Objectivity

• Social Influence: Individuals are influenced by societal expectations and norms.

  • Depressive Realism: Individuals with depression may hold more accurate self-views compared to those without.

  • Inflated Self-Esteem: Potential consequences include egotism and disrespect toward others.

Page 9: Attitude Components

• Attitude Definition: An evaluative stance toward a specific topic.

  • Components of Attitude:

    1. Affective Component: Emotional response (e.g., fear of guns).

    2. Cognitive Component: Beliefs and facts regarding a topic.

    3. Behavioral Component: Actions reflecting attitudes (e.g., voting decisions).

• Behavioral Attitude Theory: We base attitudes on observed behaviors and actions.

Page 10: Attitude Acquisition

• Genetic Component: Some attitudes have genetic predispositions, influenced by experiences.

  • Meta Analysis: Aggregating data from various studies.

  • Moderating Variables: Contexts affecting the relationship between variables (e.g., stress impacting performance).

• Attitude Predictors: Factors influencing when attitudes predict behavior, like strength, acquisition sources, and congruence.

Page 11: Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes

• Explicit Attitudes: Conscious beliefs that individuals can report.

  • Example: A consumer’s favorite shoe brand is an explicit attitude.

  • Implicit Attitudes: Non-conscious preferences influenced by prior exposure.

  • Example: Preference for a drink based on repeated exposure without conscious awareness.

• Persuasion Overview: Framework including source, target, message, and discrepancy for influencing attitudes.

  • Central Route: Logic-driven involves high effort (e.g., detailed product comparisons in ads).

  • Peripheral Route: Low-effort, reliant on superficial cues (e.g., celebrity endorsements).

Page 12: Source Credibility in Persuasion

• Source Variables: Attributes such as attractiveness and credibility influence persuasive effectiveness.

  • Perceived Expertise: Credentials and expertise perceived by consumers.

  • Trustworthiness: Consumer judgment based on perceived self-interest and reliability.

Page 13: Gender and Persuasion

• Persuasion Factors: Influences involving gender, mood, message framing (one-sided vs. two-sided), and strength of arguments.

  • Sidedness of Messages: Affects how persuasive messages are received.

  • Example: Gain-framed vs. loss-framed messages regarding sunscreen usage.

Page 14: Psychological Reactants and Resistance

• Physiological Reactance: Resistance to threats against freedoms can motivate contrary behaviors (e.g., overeating when told not to).

  • Attitude Inoculation: Preparing against persuasive efforts by practicing arguments.

  • Subliminal Persuasion: Unconscious attempts to influence decisions through hidden stimuli.

Page 15: Cognitive Dissonance

• Cognitive Dissonance: Internal conflict arising from inconsistencies between thoughts and actions.

  • Mechanisms: Justifying behavior by altering beliefs or focusing on external factors.

  • Counterattitudinal Advocacy: Supporting policies contrary to personal beliefs can lead to attitude adjustments.

Page 16: Post-Decisional Attitude Change

• Post-Decisional Change: After making decisions between similar options, individuals enhance the chosen option and diminish the unselected ones.

  • Example: Choosing a car based on style, later emphasizing its advantages while downplaying fuel efficiency.

  • Bem's Self-Perception Theory: Individuals form attitudes through self-observation of their behavior without the tension of dissonance.

Page 17: Self-Affirmation and Self-Esteem

• Self-Affirmation: Individuals may protect their self-esteem by highlighting other unrelated competencies in light of failures.

  • Example: A student failing a test might underscore their strengths in other subjects to maintain self-worth.