2.4 - Encoding

Memory

2.4 Encoding

  • Memory can be defined as the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information.

  • Encoding is the first step in the memory process where information is transformed into a form that can be stored in the brain.

3 Stages of Memory

  1. Encoding

  2. Storage

  3. Retrieval

    • These three stages are essential for the understanding of how memory functions overall.

Processing of Memory

Automatic vs. Effortful Processing

  • Automatic Processing: The unconscious encoding of information; includes space, time, and frequency.

  • Effortful Processing: The encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

  • Explicit Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (also known as declarative memory).

  • Implicit Memory: Retention independent of conscious recollection (also known as non-declarative memory).

Brain Functions in Memory

  • Part of the Brain that Processes Explicit Memories for Storage:

    • Hippocampus: Located in the medial temporal lobe, critical for the formation of new explicit memories and the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory.

Memory Consolidation

  • Definition: The process by which short-term and temporary memories are transformed into long-term memories during rest and sleep.

    • Importance of Sleep: Sleep is essential for long-term memory formation and plays a critical role in this consolidation process.

Sensory Memory

Limits of Sensory Memory

  • George Sperling’s Experiments:

    • Focus on testing the limits of visual sensory memory, known as iconic memory.

Sperling’s Findings

  • Success in Recall: People were more successful in recalling a specific row of letters.

    • This indicates that sensory memory is very short-lived; our eyes register a photographic image of a scene for only a few tenths of a second.

    • After half a second, sensory iconic memory fades quickly, revealing the limitations of this memory type.

Short-Term Memory Limitations

Peterson and Peterson (1959) Experiment

  • Conducted an experiment to investigate the limits of short-term memory:

    1. Find a partner (one as the remember-er, the other as the administrator).

    2. The experimenter shows a list of words, in this version, the list includes:

    • BELL

    • APPLE

    • TAN

    • SHARPLY

    • GHOST

    • WAIT

    1. After displaying the words, the remember-er must count down from 100 by threes as a distraction to test recall.

Findings from the Peterson Experiment

  • Rehearsal: Indicated the importance of repetition in memory retention.

  • Complex vs. Simple: Suggested that complex words and ideas take more cognitive space in memory than simpler ones.

Encoding Memory More Effectively

Research Insights

  • Categorization & Hierarchy: Organizing information into categories enhances memory retention. Hierarchies systematically organize information by rank, position, or connection, which aids in interconnected memory formation.

Examples of Categorization and Hierarchies

  • Categorization:

    • Categories such as Stimulants, Depressants, Hallucinogens.

  • Hierarchy:

    • Examples include organizing the Human Nervous System in a hierarchical structure.

Mnemonic Devices

  • Definition: Techniques or tricks used to enhance memory formation and recall.

    • Types include:

    • Acronyms: Using the first letters of a group of words to create a new term.

    • Songs & Rhymes: Enhancing memory through musical structures or poetic devices, especially effective when spoken out loud.

    • Chunking: Breaking information into smaller, manageable pieces for easier recall.

    • Method of Loci (Mind Palace): Associating information with specific spatial locations to improve retention.

Acronyms Example

  • Using letters to substitute the terms/ideas:

    • Example phrases include:

    • “My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas.”

    • “Never Eat Soggy Waffles.”

    • “PEMDAS” (Order of Operations in Mathematics)

    • “ROYGBIV” (the colors of the rainbow).

Impact of Time on Memory

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

  • Most information is forgotten quickly shortly after learning.

    • Ebbinghaus found that if the information lasts for a day, it is more likely to remain in memory.

Study Methods
Cramming vs. Distributed Practice

  • Massed Practice: Learning a large amount of information in a short period with minimal breaks; often referred to as cramming.

  • Distributed Practice: Breaking up learning into shorter, spaced sessions, which is generally more effective.

The Spacing Effect

  • Definition: The phenomenon where humans remember items better when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than crammed together.

    • Average recommended mean performance interval is 8 hours with a variance of +/- 2 hours.

Example: The Grocery List

  • A complex list of items that can aid in studying memory strategies:

    • Items: Apples, Wheat Bread, Graham Crackers, Bananas, Cinnamon, Chicken Nuggets, Fruit Loops, Cheddar Popcorn, Ground Beef, Peanut Butter, Salami, Bubbl’r, Celery, Supreme Pizza, Swiss Cheese, Red Peppers, Cheetos, Hummus, Grapefruit, M&Ms.

Serial Position Effect

  • Definition: The psychological phenomenon where individuals are more likely to remember first (Primacy Effect) and last items (Recency Effect) in a list more than those in the middle:

    • Primacy Effect: Greater recall of information presented at the beginning of a series or list.

    • Recency Effect: Greater recall of information presented at the end of a series or list, potentially due to working memory still holding onto these items.