Absolute and Constitutional Monarchies

Chapters

  • Chapter 18, Lesson 1:  Europe in Crisis

  • Chapter 18, Lesson 2:  War and Revolution in England 

  • Chapter 18, Lesson 3:  Absolutism in Europe

  • Chapter 19, Lesson 1:  The Rise and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

  • Chapter 19, Lesson 2:  The Ottomans and the Safavids

  • Chapter 19, Lesson 3:  The Mogul Empire

Absolutism in Europe

Europe in Crisis

→ mainly based on religion

→ monarchs tried to put things in order to control economic and social upheaval

Spain’s Conflicts

→ Calvinism (Protestantism) and Catholicism became highly combative religions, aggressive in winning over converts + eliminating each other’s authority → became the primary influence on the wars that plagued Europe

Spain’s Militant Catholicism

King Philip II: “the most Catholic King” greatest supporter of militant Catholicism, inherited the kingdoms of Milan, Naples, Sicily, the Netherlands, and Spain + its empire in the Americas from his father

  • insisted on strict conformity to Catholicism + strong monarchial authority → to strengthen his control

  • Spain saw itself as a nation chosen by God to save Catholic Christianity from Protestant heretics

→ Catholic kingdoms in Spain conquered Muslim areas + expelled Spanish Jews, forced Muslims to convert or go to exile

→ often combatted by Protestant England

Resistance from the Netherlands

→ Phillip’s attempts to strengthen control led to resentment and opposition from the nobles of Netherlands; attempted to eliminate Calvinism

→ led to a conflict spanning from 1566-1609 until a truce was established

→ Northern provinces of Netherlands became the core of modern Dutch state → the 17th century became the golden age of the Dutch Republic

Protestantism in England

Elizabeth Tudor: ascended the English throne in 1558 + had major influence on the period → “Elizabethan” age

  • England became the leader of Protestant nations in Europe + laid foundations for a world empire

  • repealed laws favoring Catholics; Church of England followed moderate Protestantism that kept people satisfied

  • moderate foreign policy; attempted to keep France + Spain from becoming too powerful

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

→ Philip II established an armada to invade England in order to overthrow Protestantism but failed / Elizabeth I of England defeated Spain

→ Spain was the most populous empire in the world, but it was also bankrupt

  • Philip II spent too many funds on war + his successor spent too much on his court

  • armed forces were out of date + gov. was inefficient

  • real power shifted to England and France

The French Wars of Religion

→ centered on religious conflict; Catholic French kings persecuted Protestants

Huguenots: a French Protestant group influenced by John Calvin

  • 40-50% of nobility became Huguenots → became a powerful political threat to the monarchy

    • fueled a thirty year war between the two sides (Protestant Nobility vs Catholic Monarch)

  • strongly opposed by the ultra-Catholics

Henry IV and the Edict of Nantes

→ conflicts between the Huguenots + Catholics lasted for 30 years

Henry IV: the Huguenot political leader succeeded to the throne

  • converted to Catholicism after realizing Protestantism wouldn’t be accepted

  • religious wars eventually came to an end

  • issued the Edict of Nantes: officially recognized Catholicism as the official religion of France

    • gave Huguenots the right to worship and enjoy all political privileges

    • appeased both Catholics and Huguenots

Crises in Europe

→ inflation became a large problem in Europe; growing population increased demand for land + food which led to a drive up in prices

Economic Crises: economies began failing

  • Spain’s economy grew dependent on imported silver → began failing as mines produced less silver

    • loss of Muslim and Jewish artisans + merchants hurt the economy

  • Italy, financial center of Europe, also began declining

Social Crises: Europe underwent worsening conditions

  • 1500s: period of growing population → due to warmer climate and increased food supplies

  • 1600s: population leveled off + begins to decline → due to warfare, plague, and famine

  • Witchcraft Trials: religious zeal that started from inquisition and the hunt for heretics extended to Witchcraft

    • fear of witches grew as an intense hysteria affected the lives of many Europeans

    • common people (usually peasants/homeless) were the ones often accused of witchcraft (~75% being women)

    • accused witches usually confessed to a number of crimes under intense torture

    • began to lessen as gov. grew stronger and were less willing to disrupt their societies with witchcraft trials

The Thirty Years’ War

→ “last of the religious wars”

  1. Holy Roman Empire involved the struggle between Catholic forces and Protestant nobles (primarily Calvinist)

  2. Conflict became more political as Denmark, Sweden, France, and Spain entered the war

  3. All major European powers except England were involved in the plundering + destruction of Germany during the Thirty Years’ War

  4. War officially ended in 1684 with the Peace of Westphalia + gave Sweden, France, and their allies new territories + divided the Holy Roman Empire into independent states and ceased to be a political entity

War and Revolution in England

Revolutions in England

→ a series of rebellions and civil wars rocked England, the most famous being the English Revolution

→ English Revolution: war between king and Parliament to determine what role each should play in governing England

The Stuarts and Divine Right

→ Stuart line began when the Tudor dynasty ended, James takes the English crown

Divine Right of Kings: the belief that kings received their power from and was only responsible to God

Puritans: protestants in England inspired by Calvinist ideas

  • did not like the king’s strong defense of the Church of England

  • wished to make the Church more protestant although being members of the Church of England themselves

  • most of England’s gentry; formed an important part of the House of Commons (a part of Parliament)

Conflict between Charles I + Parliament → led to civil war

  • Parliament passed Petition of Right: placed limits on the king’s ability to tax, imprison citizens without cause, quarter troops, and institute martial law

  • Charles I initially accepted petition but later ignored it as it limited his power

  • Charles I attempted to impose more ritual on the Church of England, but thousands of Puritans left to the Americas instead of accepting his policy

Civil War and Commonwealth (Cavaliers v. Roundheads)

Roundheads: parliamentary forces; supporters of parliament

Cavaliers (Royalers): supporters of the king

→ Parliament won, due to the New Model Army of Oliver Cromwell

New Model Army: consisted of more extreme Puritans, Independents

  • believed they were doing battle for God

  • soldiers were well-disciplined and trained in new military tactics

  • purged Parliament of any members who had not supporter Cromwell → formed the Rump Parliament

→ England was declared a commonwealth (a type of republic) by England + executed king Charles I by Rump Parliament

→ Rump Parliament was eventually dispersed

Restoration

→ Cromwell ruled until his death, and then Charles II became king → restored the Stuart monarchy

Parliament Reforms: Parliament kept the power that it won + played an important role in gov.

  • principle that parliament must give consent to taxation was accepted

Charles Catholicism: suspended laws that Parliament had passed against Catholics + Puritans after the restoration of the Stuart Monarchy

  • Parliament forced the king to back down (denied Charles suspension) + passed a Test Act: specified that only Anglicans (members of the Church of England) could hold military + civil office

→ James II became king after Charles had no direct successor from his lineage

  • James openly named Catholics to high positions, religion became a cause of conflict between king and parliament again

  • parliament objected to James’ policies but stopped short of rebellion

Revolution

→ William of Orange (dutch leader) was invited by a group of English nobles to invade England

→ only agreed to fight France with England’s resources because he hated France

→ England had undergone a “Glorious Revolution” with almost no bloodshed

    → James retreated to London + abandoned his army + daughter and husband

→ William and Mary Reign: offered by Parliament; abolished the notion of the divine-right theory of kingship

Bill of Rights: was passed; contained many of the same ideas as the Petition of Right

  • contained ideas that made political + legal impact

  • set forth Parliament’s right to make laws + levy taxes

  • made it impossible for kings to oppose or to do without Parliament

  • called for the rights of citizens to keep arms and to have a jury trial

  • helped to create a system of government based on the rule of law + freely elected Parliament

Toleration Act of 1689: granted Puritans, but not Catholics, the right of free public worship

  • marked a turning point in English history because few English citizens were persecuted for religion

Legal and Political Thought

Commentaries on the Laws of England: written by William Blackstone

  • stated that political stability could be achieved by a revived emphasis on English common law

  • stressed the use of English Common Law

Thomas Hobbes: alarmed by the revolutionary upheavals in England

  • published Leviathan to deal with the problem of disorder

  • believed that before organized society, humans were guided not by reason and moral ideals but by a ruthless struggle for self-preservation

  • people were supposed to make a social contract and agree to form a state

John Locke: viewed the exercise of political power differently from Hobbes

  • Two Treatises of Government: argued against the absolute rule of one person

  • believed that before society was organized, humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than in a state of war

  • believed that all humans had natural rights, but were difficult for people to protect

    • government should protect the rights of people → people would act reasonably (social contract)

    • people = landholding aristocracy; Locke was not an advocate of democracy

→ Locke’s ideas were very impactful in the USA (Declaration of Independence + Constitution)

Absolutism in Europe

France Under Louis XIV

Absolutism: a system in which a ruler holds total power

  • Absolute Monarchy: a form of monarchy in which the power of the monarch is not limited → tied to the idea of the divine right of kings

  • stability = increasing power of the monarch

  • monarch had the ability to make laws, levy taxes, administer justice, control officials, and determine foreign policies

Louis XIV: regarded as the best example of absolutism; court became imitated throughout Europe (very impactful)

Richelieu: Louis XIII’s chief minister

→ French history went through a period of struggle as gov. fought to avoid the breakdown of the state → gov. was left in the hands of the royal ministers

  • strengthened the monarchy’s power

  • Huguenots were seen as a threat to the king, so he took away all their political + military rights

  • set up a network of spies to uncover and crush conspiracies by nobles

Louis in Power: “Sun King”

Primary Goal: to be the real king + sole ruler of France

  • controlled the central policy-making machinery of the government

  • established a royal court at Versailles

    • became a place where powerful subjects came to find favors + offices for themselves

  • threatened by highest nobles + royal princes; Louis removed them from royal council

  • made government ministers obey his every wish; bribed + enticed government people in provinces to give himself more power

  • pursued an anti-Protestant policy to convert Huguenots to Catholicism

  • waged four wars to dominate Europe

  • developed a standing army numbering 400,000 in time of war; wished to achieve the military glory befitting the Sun King and ensure that his Bourbon dynasty dominated Europe

Colbert: controller-general of finances

  • sought to increase France’s wealth and power by following mercantilism

  • granted subsidies to new industries, built roads and canals, raised tariffs on foreign goods + created a merchant marine to carry French goods

The Spread of Absolutism

Decline of Spain

→ once the most populous empire in the world

Philip IV: came the closest to the practice of absolute monarchy

  • sought to centralize the government of Spain in the hands of the monarchy through programs of political reform

  • unable to reduce the power of the Spanish nobles

  • expensive military campaigns → revolts + decline of Spain

Emergence of Prussia

→ originally a small, open territory with no natural frontiers for defense

Frederick William the Great Elector: laid out the foundation for the Prussian state

  • built a large + efficient standing army of ~40,000 men

  • Prussian army became the fourth-largest in Europe

  • set up the General War Commissariat to levy taxes + oversee the army’s growth

  • Junkers: members of the Prussian landed aristocracy + served as officers in the army

The New Austrian Empire

→ played a significant role in European politics as emperors in the Holy Roman Empire

Austrian Hapsburg: played a significant role in European politics as emperors in the Holy Roman Empire + created a new empire in eastern and southern Europe

Austrian Empire: traditional lands in present-day Austria, Czech Republic, and Hungary

  • eventually took control of all of Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia

  • monarchy never became highly centralized due to the vast number of national groups

    • remained a collection of territories held together by the Hapsburg emperor

  • no common sentiment tying all regions together

Peter the Great

Ivan IV: the first ruler to take the title of czar: Russian word for caesar

  • expanded the territories of Russia eastward

  • crushed the power of the boyars (Russian nobility)

  • known as Ivan the Terrible because of his ruthless deeds (stabbed his son)

Peter the Great: one of the most prominent members of the Romanov dynasty

  • determined to westernize Russia, eager to borrow European technology

    • believed modernization of army + navy was crucial to make Russia a great power

  • made Russia a great military power and an important European state

  • claimed divine right to rule Russia

  • began to introduced Western customs, practices, and manners into Russia

    • ordered the first Russian book of etiquette to teach Western manners

    • men were required to shave their beards + shorten their coast; women were allowed to remove face-covering veils

  • took control of the Baltic Sea to become a port with ready access to Europe

  • constructed capital city St.Petersburg and became the most important port

  • divided Russia into provinces + hoped to create a “police state” (well-ordered community governed by law)

The Muslim Empires

The Rise and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

Rise of the Ottoman Turks

Ottoman Turks: created under the leader Osman + founded the Ottoman dynasty

  • moved into the Balkans + built strong military

  • Janissaries: children enslaved from local Christian populations + converted to Islam → developed into an elite guard

    • trained as foot soldiers + administrators and served the sultan (Ottoman Leader)

  • mastered firearm technology + defeated the Serbs + advanced and annexed Bulgaria

Fall of the Byzantine Empire

→ Ottomans came to control two straits: the Bosporus + Dardanelles which led to the Mediterranean Sea → controlled by the Byzantine Empire

Ottoman Attack on Byzantine Empire: occurred under Mehmed II + laid siege with 80,000 troops

  1. bombarded Constantinople with massive cannons

  2. conflict fought for two months by the Byzantines

  3. Byzantine empire was destroyed and three-day sack of the city began

→ marked a vital turning point for the Turks, now linked European and Asian parts of their empire

  • Constantinople → Istanbul (new capital city)

  • led to the search for alternative trading routes to Asia → led to European exploration to Africa and the Americas

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

→ controlled the Balkans and the Anatolian Peninsula

Sultan Selim I: conquered Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Arabia (heartland of Islam)

  • controlled several of Islam’s holy cities

    • Jerusalem, Mecca, and Madinah

  • declared himself the new caliph (successor to Muhammad)

Suleyman I: advanced up to Danube river + won over Hungarians

  • very powerful sultan

  • conquered majority of Hungary + moved into Austria

  • defeated by the Spanish, but still controlled a significant portion of Eastern Europe

  • introduced Islam into predominantly Christian territories

→ Ottoman Empire earned the nickname “sleeping giant”, became occupied with internal issues

  • eventually laid siege on Vienna, but were pushed out of Hungary

  • never became a threat to central Europe again

  • empire divided into provinces with Istanbul as capital

Life Under Ottoman Rule

Gunpowder Empire: formed by outside conquerors who unified their conquered regions, largely based on its mastery of firearms → label for Muslim empires in Persia and India, and the Ottoman Empire

The Imperial Sultans

Sultan: supreme authority in a political and military sense, head of the Ottoman system

  • status + prestige increased as empire expanded

  • centralized administrative system was adopted

  • position was hereditary, but not necessarily the eldest son had to succeed

    • led to struggles over succession upon the death → led to execution

Harem: the private domain of the sultan, where the sultan + his wives resided

  • mother of a sultan became known as queen mother + acted as major adviser to the throne

  • queen got considerable power in state affairs

Grand Vizier: chief minister who carried the main burdens of the state, led meetings of the council

  • sultan controlled his bureaucracy through an imperial council that met four days a week

  • sultan indicated his desired to the grand vizier during council hearings

Pashas: bureaucrats that had been trained in a palace school for officials that assisted officials that governed the various provinces + districts of the ottoman Empire

  • responsible for collecting taxes + supplying armies for the empire

The Topkapi Palace (“iron gate”): center of the sultan’s power, private residence of the ruler + his family

Ottoman Society

→ Sunni Muslims, ruled by Islamic Law

Ulema: group of religious advisers that were given religious duties from the sultans

  • administered the legal system and schools for educating Muslims

  • Islamic law and customs were applied to all Muslims in the empire

→ generally tolerant of non-Muslims

  • paid a tax, and were allowed to practice their religion or convert to Islam

  • most people in Europe remained Christian

Four Main Occupational Groups: how the subjects of the Ottoman Empire were divided

  1. Peasants: farmed land that the state leased to them, but ultimate ownership of all land resided with the sultan

  2. Artisans: organized according to craft guilds

    1. each guild provided financial services, social security, and training to its members

  3. Merchants: the most privileged class in Ottoman society; largely exempt from government regulations and taxes

  4. Pastoral Peoples (nomadic herders)

Women’s Role: subject to the same restrictions as women but somewhat better

  • Islamic law was more tolerant in defining the legal position of women

  • women were allowed to own + inherit property, could not be forced into marriage, and were permitted to seek divorce

  • gained considerable power within the palace

Architecture and the Arts

→ Ottoman sultans were significant + enthusiastic patrons of the arts

Mosques: considered the greatest contribution of the Ottoman empire in architecture

  • modeled after Constantinople’s Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia

  • reflected the merger of Turkish and Byzantine cultures

Sinan: greatest of all Ottoman architects

  • built 81 mosques

  • each mosque was topped with an imposing dome + framed with four minarets

Textiles and rugs: flourished under the Ottoman Empire

  • resurfaced the silk industry that had been introduced by the Byzantine emperor Justinian

  • rugs were a peasant industry, factories produced silk for wall hangings and court costumes

The Ottomans and the Safavids

Problems in the Ottoman Empire

Suleyman I: known as the Ottoman Empire’s greatest ruler; “Grand Turk”

  • great military leader; led his army on 13 major military campaigns

  • doubled the size of the Ottoman Empire

  • reorganized the government, regulated the laws of the empire, and properly enforced them (became known as “Lawgiver)

→ Problems: Sultans became less involved in government following the death of Suleyman

  • allowed their ministers to exercise more power → training of officials decline

  • senior positions became increasingly nepotistic

  • members of the elite soon formed a privileged group seeking wealth and power

  • sultan became servant of the ruling class (lost power)

Significant Problem: growing impact of Western ideas and customs

  • officials and merchants began to imitate the lifestyles of Europeans

  • sultans attempted to counter this by outlawing goods life coffee and tobacco

→ Economy: troubled by inflation and the trade imbalance between the empire and Europe

  • guilds had strict price regulations and could not compete with manufactured goods from Europe

  • left economy with little money for military expansion

The Safavid Empire

→ the area extending from Persia into central Asia fell into anarchy as the empire of Timur Lenk collapsed, the Safavids took control

→ were ardent Shia Muslims

Shah Ismail: founded the Safavid dynasty

  • Shah: king of a new Persian state, claimed to be the spiritual leader of all Islam

  • used forces to seize much of Iran and Iraq

  • sent Shia preachers into the Anatolian Peninsula to convert members of Turkish tribes in the Ottoman Empire

  • ordered the execution of Sunni Muslims when he conquered Baghdad

→ faced conflict with the Ottoman sultan, who advanced against the Safavids in Persia

→ the Safavids attempted to consolidate their rule throughout Persia and western areas, but couldn’t integrate various Turkish people with the Persian-speaking population

→ Shia faith was used as a unifying force; made conversion to the Shia faith mandatory; many Sunnis were killed or exiled

Shah Abbas: faced conflict with the Ottoman Empire (Shia v. Sunni)

  • forced to sign a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire that caused him to lose much territory in the northwest

  • allowed the Safavids to reach the high point of their glory

  • administrators were trained to run the kingdom

  • strengthened his army, and got Azerbaijan bake as a part of his empire

→ the Safavid dynasty gradually lost vigor following Shah Abbas’ death → everyone lacked talent and political skills to become his successor

→ Shia religious elements began to increase at court and in Safavid society

Intellectual Freedom: marked the height of the Safavid empire

Religious Orthodoxy: the pressure to conform to traditional religious beliefs; increased

→ freedom of women and non-Muslims declined during the late stages of the empire

→ Safavid dynasty collapsed and Persia fell into long period of anarchy

Life under the Safavids

→ very mixed society; combination of Turkish and Persian elements affected all facets of Safavid society

Social Status: strong-minded shahs firmly controlled the power of the landed aristocracy

  • appointment to senior positions in the bureaucracy was based on merit rather than birth

  • Safavid rulers were eagerly supported by Shias due to Shia Islam being the state religion

  • often hired foreigners from neighboring countries for positions in his government

Bazaars: provided citizens with access to a variety of goods and merchandise; the heart of commerce

  • Shahs often played an active part in trade and manufacturing activity

  • enclosed and had high vaulted ceilings that covered narrow rows of stalls

  • Caravansaries attached to the bazaar received trains of camels or mules loaded with goods

However, Safavid Persia was not as prosperous as the Moguls and the Ottomans

→ trade with Europe was difficult because Ottoman Empire blocked off their access

Culture: knowledge of science, medicine, and mathematics under the Safavids was equal to that of other societies in the region

  • flowering of the arts during the reign of Shah Abbas

  • silk + carpet weaving flourished, stimulated by great demand for Persian carpets in the West

The Mogul Dynasty

→ the Indian subcontinent was still divided into Hindu and Muslim kingdoms

Mogul Peoples: descendants of the Mongols but were not native to India

  • came from north of the Indus River valley

  • Leader: Babur, descended from both Timur Lenk and Genghis Khan

→ crossed the Khyber Pass into India, captured Delhi with advanced weapons

Akbar Era of Mogul Dynasty

Akbar: Babur’s grandson, took the throne when he was 14

  • intelligent and industrious, brought Mogul rule to most of India

  • used heavy artillery to overpower their rivals + successful negotiations

  • created the greatest Indian empire since the Mauryan dynasty

  • appeared highly centralized but was a collection of semi-independent states held together by the emperor

→ Akbar is widely considered to be the greatest of the conquering Mogul monarchs, and best known for his humane character

  • initially born a Muslim, but showed keen interest in other religions + tolerated Hindu practices

  • tolerant in his administration of the government

    • upper ranks were filled with nonnative Muslims, but many of the lower-ranking officials were Hindu

  • Zamindars: local officials that governed local districts and were allowed to keep a portion of the taxes paid by the peasants in lieu of salary

    • came to exercise considerable authority

→ Indian peasants were required to pay about 1/3 of their annual harvest, but the system was applied fairly

  • if bad weather struck, taxes were reduced or suspended

  • allowed trade and manufacturing to flourish; long period of peace + political stability

→ a very prosperous in foreign trade

  • Indian goods were exported in exchange for gold and silver

  • textiles, tropical food products and spices, precious stones

Jahangir: Akbar’s son

  • continued to strengthen the central government’s control over his vast empire

  • grip began to weaken when he slowly lost interest in governing and gave more authority to his wife who used her position to make the next successor someone from her own family

Shah Jahan: maintained the political system established by earlier Mogul rulers

  • expanded the boundaries of the empire in the Deccan Plateau

  • failed to deal with domestic problems

    • had a nearly empty treasury, but spent his money on military campaigns and expensive building projects

    • forced to raise high taxes

  • most of Jahan’s subjects lived in poverty

Aurangzeb: Shah Jahan’s son, one of the most controversial rulers

  • allowed the empire to reach its greatest physical size, expanded it along nearly all of its boundaries

    • made his subjects resentful with constant warfare + religious intolerance

  • had very high principle, attempted to eliminate what he considered to be India’s social evils

    • forbade the custom of suttee: required a wife to throw herself on her dead husband’s funeral pyre; practiced by many Hindus

    • forbade the levying of illegal taxes, gambling, and drinking

  • a very devout Muslims, reversed the Mogul policies of religious tolerance

    • prohibited the building of new Hindu temples and forced Hindus to convert to Islam

→ Delhi eventually was sacked by the Persians, and the Mogul Empire collapsed

Life in Mogul India

→ Moguls = foreigners in India, led to complications as they were minority Muslims in a majority Hindu country

→ wealthy nobility + prosperous merchant class

Role of Women: played an active role in Mogul tribal society, often relied on for political advice

  • Mogul attitudes toward women affected Indian society; women from aristocratic families often got salaries + could own land

  • placed certain restrictions on women under their interpretations of Islamic law; became generally adopted by Hindus

Art and Architecture: blend between Persian and Indian cultural influences within Mogul India formed a new architectural style

  • Taj Mahal: built by Shah Jahan, widely considered the most beautiful building in India

  • painting resulted from the blending of Persian and Indian cultures

  • Akbar established a state workshop for artists, consisting of mostly HIndus, who worked under the guidance of Persian masters to create the Mogul school of painting

The Development of Sikhism

→ developed during the rule of Babar

Guru Nanak: had a religious vision at the age of 30 (first Guru)

  • lived in the Punjab region of South Asia that was ruled by Moguls; very diverse society with Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims, and Jains

  • vision entailed that everyone was a child of God and all faiths are different paths towards the same creator

  • regarded as the first guru, spiritual leader in Sikh tradition

Key Characteristics

  • monotheistic, emphasized devotion to a formless, infinite One that can be found in everyone and in all of nature

  • God is formless, all-powerful, all-loving, and without fear or hate towards anyone

  • unity with God is achieve through service to humanity, meditation, race, religion, or gender

  • Five Ks (Khalsa): all initiated Sikhs are required to display these

    • Kesh, uncut hair covered by a special turban

    • Kanga, comb for the hair

    • Kirpan: a short ceremonial sword

    • Kara: a metal bracelet

    • Kachera: traditional underwear

  • Adi Granth: holy Book

→ experienced hostility and persecution from Mogul officials, but built a strong religious and economic community → eventually created an independent kingdom in Punjab region

→ world’s fifth-largest religion ~20,000,000 followers in India and Pakistan

Europeans Role in India

→ led to the decline of the Mogul Empire

→ had established trading forts at various Indian cities, carrying Indian-made cotton goods

Sir Robert Clive: saved the English from their rivals for India (French)

  • served as the chief representative in India of the East India Company: a private company that acted on behalf of the British Crown

  • ultimately restricted the French to a few small territories in India

→ British expansion brought great riches to individual British merchants

→ British officials became wealthy as they found they could obtain money from local rulers, East India Company moved inland from the bustling coastal cities

→ dominate India