Study Guide on Paradigms, Theory, and Research
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…
Name and explain the main social science paradigms.
Explain the difference between deductive and inductive methods as they are used in social research.
Give an example to illustrate the use of deductive analysis.
Give an example to illustrate the use of inductive analysis.
Explain how theory and research methods impact each other.
Give an example of how social theory shows up in everyday life.
Give an example of how theory choices might raise issues of research ethics.
Introduction
This chapter explores how theory and research work hand in hand in social life inquiry.
Paradigms: Fundamental frames of reference that provide ways of looking at social phenomena.
Paradigms don’t explain but offer frameworks within which theories are constructed.
The interplay between paradigms and theories is essential in searching for meaning in social life.
Clarification of Logic
Logic: A system of principles for determining the validity of explanations; not interchangeable with rationality.
Rationality: Associated with science, distinct from supernatural explanations, strives for objectivity and empirical observation.
Rational explanations can accommodate irrational human behavior.
Social Science Paradigms
Macrotheory: A theory that addresses large segments of society, like class struggles or international relations.
Microtheory: A theory focused on smaller aspects, like individual behaviors and interactions.
Ethnomethodology: Looks at how individuals in interactions create social realities.
Conflict Paradigm: Analyzes struggles between groups, such as economic classes.
Symbolic Interactionism: Studies how people create meaning through social interaction.
Feminist Paradigms: Focus on gender differences and the broader implications for social organization.
Critical Race Theory: Explores racial disparities and provides a lens to examine the socio-political landscape.
Elements of Social Theory
Consists of observations, facts, concepts, variables, axioms or postulates, propositions, and hypotheses.
Observation: Seeing, hearing, and experiencing phenomena directly.
Fact: A phenomenon that has been observed.
Laws: Universal generalizations about classes of facts—a relationship that holds consistently.
Concepts: Abstract elements that classify phenomena in studies.
Two Logical Systems Revisited
Deduction: Traditional scientific method starting with a theory, leading to operationalization and then observation.
Induction: Begins with observations, seeks to identify patterns, and results in generalizations or theories.
Scientific research often utilizes an alternation between both.
Deductive Theory Construction
Choose an interesting topic.
Research existing literature and identify known facts.
Specify concepts and variables.
Develop logically derived propositions from existing knowledge.
Construct hypothesis and operational definitions that can be tested.
Example: Distributive Justice Theory by Guillermina Jasso which mathematically describes how individuals compare their possessions to others to evaluate justice.
Inductive Theory Construction
Involves observing concrete aspects of social life leading to generalizations.
Example: A study on marijuana use among college students, where initial findings showed no correlation to academic performance, shifting the focus to 'social constraints' affecting behavior based on various factors like gender and living situation.
Links between Theory and Research
Theoretical frameworks guide empirical studies, and research findings can modify or affirm existing theories.
Complex interactions exist between theory and practice in social research, with reciprocal influences.
Example: Studies on social movements can revise theories based on observed actions and motivations of participants.
Importance of Theory in the Real World
Theory shapes the understanding of societal functions and aids in planning for social reforms and interventions.
David Takeuchi's research demonstrated how understanding marijuana use can inform policy decisions.
Research Ethics and Theory
The choice of theory impacts research observation and interpretations.
Researchers must be aware of potential biases introduced by their theoretical orientation and strive for objectivity in design and interpretation.
Peer review serves as a guard against bias, ensuring that multiple perspectives enrich the research process.
Main Points Recap
Each paradigm offers different insights and understandings relevant to social research.
The interaction of theory and research is integral, highlighting the necessity to understand social structures for effective reform.
Both deductive and inductive theories enrich social scientific inquiry and provide foundational knowledge for practical applications in the real world.
Key Terms
Critical realism: A paradigm asserting that things are real in terms of their observable effects.
Hypothesis: A testable statement derived from a theory.
Interest convergence: The concept that majority groups will support minority interests when those align with their own.
Operational definition: A precise specification of variables for research purposes.
Operationalization: The process of defining a concept in measurable terms.