Chapter 4: The Near East

The Iron Age and the Rise of Assyria

  • The Iron Age began around 1200 BCE in the Near East.

  • Highly trained Assyrian armies, equipped with bronze and iron weapons, expanded from northern Mesopotamia.

  • Their conquests led to an empire larger than any seen before in the Near East.

    • Historical Sources: Information comes from archaeological finds (like detailed reliefs) and textual documentation (e.g., the Bible).

  • Assyrian Imperial Tactics:

    • "Calculated Frightfulness": Public torture and mutilation of rebels to deter further uprisings.

    • Forced Deportation: Entire populations, especially elites and skilled individuals, were moved to depopulated regions to be assimilated into Assyrian culture.

The Hittites

  • An Indo-European-speaking group, distinct from Mesopotamian and Semitic peoples.

  • Emerged as a powerful force in Anatolia starting in the 1600s BCE.

    • Likely immigrants who blended with the local population and adopted their culture and religion.

  • Capital: Hattusas (by 1650 BCE).

  • Expansion and Decline:

    • Expanded across Anatolia and into Syria, even taking the city of Babylon in the early sixteenth century BCE under Mursilis.

    • Mursilis's assassination led to the empire's decline through rebellions and war.

    • A revival occurred from 1420 BCE under King Tudhaliyas I.

  • Battle of Qadesh (1258 BCE):

    • Fought against Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses II, generally considered a draw or narrow Hittite victory.

    • Led to one of early history’s greatest peace treaties between Hittite King Hattusilis II and Ramesses II.

  • Hittite Society:

    • Few large cities; most people lived in small rural villages or towns.

    • Village land was mostly held in common and worked by the people.

    • Slavery:

    • Relatively rare early on, but increased with war captives.

    • Practiced chattel slavery: enslaved people were considered property and could be sold at will. Often used in agriculture to free citizens for military service.

  • Hittite Religion:

    • Incorporated elements from various traditions, including Mesopotamia.

    • Divination rituals: Mesopotamian in origin (e.g., studying sacrificed animal organs, consulting soothsayers, observing birds).

    • Important gods: Sun goddess Arinna and the weather god Tarhunna.

Egyptian Revival and Conflict with Hittites

  • After Akhenaten's death (around 1336 BCE), Egypt reverted to older religious traditions and attempted to erase his reign.

  • Successors (Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun) restored the old faith, abandoned Akhetaton, returned to Memphis, and repaired desecrated temples.

  • Tutankhamun also sent armies to put down revolts in Nubia and Canaan and challenge the Hittites.

  • Ramesside Kings: A new dynasty began with Ramesses I. His heirs worked to restore Egypt's greatness through military and building campaigns.

  • Ramesses II:

    • Ruled for over sixty-five years (1279-1213 BCE), the last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom.

    • Fought several wars with the Hittites in Syria and against the Libyans.

    • Led an army of twenty thousand to retake Qadesh; his bravery (and luck/Hittite negligence) allowed him to survive and beat back the enemy.

The Persian Empire

  • Cyrus II (the Great):

    • Between 550 and 539 BCE, expanded his realm eastward and westward.

    • In 539 BCE, defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire and took Babylon.

    • His empire grew to include Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Judah, becoming the largest in the Near East at that time.

    • Administered his domain using local governors to maintain control and prevent rebellions.

    • Died in battle in 530 BCE.

  • Cambyses II:

    • Son of Cyrus, continued his father's plan to invade Egypt.

    • In 525 BCE, overwhelmed the Egyptians, capturing the pharaoh and adding Egypt to the empire.

    • Adopted the role of pharaoh and respected local traditions, a common Persian strategy to gain support.

    • The Persian Empire under him stretched from India to the Aral Sea, the Aegean coast, and the Nile River.

    • Died in 522 BCE during a revolt, leading to an uncertain future for the empire.

  • Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

    • Rose to power in 522 BCE amidst controversy regarding his claim to the throne (some scholars suggest he fabricated the story of a false Bardiya).

    • Took over a year to quell ensuing rebellions.

    • Mount Behistun Inscription: Commissioned an enormous relief inscription detailing his rise to power and the suppression of rebels in three languages.

    • Reorganization of the Empire:

    • Divided the empire into twenty governing districts called satrapies.

    • Each satrapy was administered by a royal governor, a satrap, who answered directly to the king.

    • Building Projects:

    • Undertook the construction of elaborate palaces at Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae.

    • Infrastructure Projects:

    • Ordered the construction of a canal connecting the Red Sea to Egypt’s Nile River (and thus the Mediterranean), though its completion is debated.

    • Expanded and rebuilt roads and constructed qanats (underground irrigation channels).

  • Persian Imperial Policy and Culture:

    • Religion: Zoroastrianism.

    • The empire was remarkably diverse, including Armenians, Nubians, Egyptians, Judeans, and many others.

    • Cyrus II famously permitted Judeans exiled in Babylon to return to Judah and rebuild their temple.

    • The Persian kings enforced loyalty and tribute but did not seek to homogenize their diverse subjects, instead fostering a multiethnic, multilingual, and multireligious empire.

The Hebrews

  • A Semitic-speaking Canaanite people known for their monotheistic religion, Judaism.

  • Their history is preserved in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible in the Jewish tradition, Old Testament in the Christian tradition), which influenced Christianity and Islam.

  • Historians scrutinize the biblical text and combine it with archaeological findings, revealing a complex and gradual development of Hebrew history.

  • The History of the Hebrews

    • The biblical history begins with creation, but the Hebrews as a distinct group emerge with the patriarch Abraham, born around 2150 BCE in Ur.

    • Abraham traveled to Canaan and had a son, Isaac, who had Jacob, who in turn had twelve sons, forming the traditional Twelve Tribes of Israel.

    • Divided Monarchy: After King Solomon's death, the united monarchy split into two kingdoms:

    • Israel in the north (larger, wealthier, capital Samaria), often portrayed negatively in the Bible for religious deviations.

    • Judah in the south (capital Jerusalem).

    • Foreign Domination:

    • Neo-Assyrian Empire: Expansion into Canaan led to devastating attacks on Israel, with thousands of Israelites deported in 722 BCE. Judah avoided destruction but was incorporated.

    • Neo-Babylonians: Resistance led to forced deportations in 597 BCE and the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 586 BCE.

    • Babylonian exile: Judeans were deported to Babylon.

      • Many assimilated, but others retained their culture and religious beliefs, leading to a period of cultural and religious revival.

      • During this time, earlier Hebrew writings were edited and combined, forming the core of the Hebrew Bible.

    • Persian Empire: Cyrus the Great allowed unassimilated Judeans to return to Judah, leading to the rebuilding of Yahweh's temple and Jerusalem.

  • The Culture of the Hebrews

    • The most salient feature was their unique monotheism.

    • Development of Monotheism:

    • The Bible suggests it began with Abraham's covenant with Yahweh around 2100 BCE.

    • With Moses and the Exodus from Egypt, laws were given directly from Yahweh, including the command for exclusive worship of Yahweh.

    • Textual evidence suggests a more gradual process, as implied by phrases like "have no other gods before me," indicating the acknowledged existence of other gods.

    • Some biblical passages refer to God in plural or as part of an assembly of gods, likely preserving elements of earlier Canaanite polytheistic traditions (e.g., El, Asherah, Baal, Astarte).

    • Archaeological discoveries corroborate the worship of these other deities well into the eighth century BCE.

    • "Backsliding" Theme: The Hebrew Bible frequently describes the Hebrews straying from Yahweh into polytheism, leading to divine punishment (e.g., destruction of the temple, deportation).

    • Religious reformers, like King Hezekiah of Judah (727-697 BCE), sought to centralize Yahweh worship. Despite some reversals (e.g., under King Manasseh), these reformers gained the upper hand by the mid-seventh century BCE.

    • The Babylonian exile solidified the interpretation that disasters were Yahweh's tools to compel obedience. This period was crucial for editing the Hebrew Bible and establishing the framework of Judaism.

    • Post-Exile Judaism:

    • Jews (people from Judah) were expected to worship only Yahweh, live moral lives (e.g., prohibitions against murdering, stealing, adultery).

    • Dietary Laws: Barred from specific foods like pork, shellfish, insects, and meat mixed with dairy. Food preparation required ritual slaughter.

    • Sabbath: Prohibited from working on the seventh day of the week.

    • Emphasized respect for wives, charity, and specific rules for Yahweh's worship (love, fear, emulate).

    • Agricultural Traditions: Many Mosaic laws related to agriculture, reflecting early Hebrew life. The festival of Sukkot ("huts") symbolized their agricultural past.

    • Urban Adaptation: As Hebrews became urbanized, agricultural traditions became symbolic. They found economic opportunities as craftspeople, traders, and merchants.

    • Jerusalem Temple: Completed around 515 BCE, it became the center of urban life in Jerusalem.

      • Featured courtyards, an enclosed sanctuary with altars, and the "Holy of Holies"—a dark, special location where Yahweh was present.

      • Priests performed elaborate rituals and sacrifices supplied by worshippers seeking Yahweh's favor.

Key Definitions

  • Babylonian exile: The deportation of Judeans to Babylon after the fall of Jerusalem.

  • Chattel slavery: A form of slavery in which one person is owned by another as a piece of property.

  • Exodus: The mass migration of Hebrews out of Egypt under the leadership of Moses.

  • Hebrew Bible: The holy book that, according to Jewish tradition, tells the history of the Hebrew people.

  • Iron Age: The period beginning around 1200 BCE when iron became the preferred material for manufacturing tools and weapons.

  • Ramesside kings: The line of kings that ruled New Kingdom Egypt following the reign of Ramesses I.

  • Satrapy: One of twenty governing districts in Persia administered by royal governors called satraps, who answered directly to the king.

  • Vassal state: A state or kingdom that is nominally independent in the running of its internal affairs but must submit to the demands of a dominating empire and usually provide tribute to it.

  • Zoroastrianism: The religion of the ancient Persians, named for its founder Zarathustra, pronounced Zoroaster in Greek.