APPROACHES

1. Behaviourist approachCore assumptions (AO1)

• Behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning.

• Behaviourists focus on observable behaviour rather than unobservable mental processes.

• Behaviour is shaped by experience, particularly associations and consequences.

Classical conditioning — Pavlov

• Learning by association between two stimuli.

• Pavlov repeatedly paired a bell with food until the bell alone triggered salivation.

• UCS: food; naturally produces salivation.

• UCR: natural salivation to food.

• NS: bell before conditioning.

• CS: bell after conditioning.

• CR: learned salivation to the bell.

Operant conditioning — Skinner

• Learning through consequences of behaviour.

• Positive reinforcement: adding a desirable consequence to increase behaviour.

• Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour.

• Punishment: a consequence that decreases behaviour.

• Skinner used controlled animal experiments to investigate reinforcement and behaviour.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Scientific: controlled laboratory experiments allow variables to be manipulated and cause-and-effect relationships to be investigated.

• Applications: behaviour modification and systematic desensitisation use learning principles to help treat phobias.

• Environmental determinism: may underestimate free will and individual choice.

• Reductionist: explains behaviour through conditioning while potentially ignoring thoughts, emotions and biology.

• Animal research: findings from animals may not fully explain complex human behaviour.

2. Social learning theory (SLT)Core assumptions (AO1)

• Behaviour is learned by observing and imitating role models.

• People are more likely to imitate models they identify with, such as similar, attractive or high-status people.

• Learning can occur without direct reinforcement.

Key concepts

• Modelling: a person demonstrates behaviour that others can observe.

• Imitation: copying observed behaviour.

• Identification: relating to a model and being more likely to copy them.

• Vicarious reinforcement: seeing someone rewarded makes imitation more likely.

Four mediational processes

1. Attention: noticing the behaviour.

2. Retention: remembering it.

3. Motor reproduction: being able to perform it.

4. Motivation: having a reason to imitate it.

Bandura’s Bobo doll study

• Children observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models.

• Children who saw aggression were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour.

• Supports observational learning, although the artificial setting limits generalisation.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Cognitive factors: recognises mental processes, unlike traditional behaviourism.

• Less deterministic: people think about observed behaviour before deciding whether to imitate it.

• Applications: explains how children learn from parents, peers and media.

• Biological factors: does not fully explain why individuals respond differently to the same models.

3. Cognitive approachCore assumptions (AO1)

• Behaviour is influenced by internal mental processes, including memory, perception, thinking and attention.

• Mental processes cannot be observed directly, so psychologists infer them from behaviour.

Key concepts

• Schemas: mental frameworks that organise and interpret information. They develop through experience and influence how information is processed and remembered.

• Computer models: the mind is compared to a computer that inputs, processes, stores and retrieves information.

• Theoretical models: simplified explanations of mental processes, which can be tested and revised.

• Cognitive neuroscience: investigates links between cognitive processes and brain structures or activity.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Scientific: experiments allow mental processes to be investigated objectively and systematically.

• Applications: cognitive principles inform cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and memory strategies.

• Models may oversimplify: human thinking is more complex than computer information processing.

• Mental processes are inferred: behaviour may not reveal exactly what someone is thinking.

• Biological links: cognitive neuroscience connects mental processes to the brain, although associations do not always prove causation.

4. Biological approachCore assumptions (AO1)

Behaviour is explained through physical processes, including genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters and hormones.

Key concepts

• Genetics: genes may predispose people to certain behaviours or psychological disorders.

• Genotype: an individual's genetic makeup.

• Phenotype: observable characteristics resulting from the interaction of genes and environment.

• Evolution: behaviours that improve survival or reproductive success may become more common through natural selection.

• Neurochemistry: neurotransmitters affect communication between neurons and can influence behaviour.

• Hormones: chemical messengers released by endocrine glands that can affect behaviour and mood.

The nervous system

• CNS: brain and spinal cord; processes information.

• PNS: nerves outside the CNS; carries information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

• Neurons: nerve cells that transmit information.

• Synaptic transmission: neurotransmitters cross the synapse between neurons and bind to receptors.

Localisation of function

• Some brain functions are associated with particular areas.

• Frontal lobe: planning, decision-making and aspects of movement.

• Parietal lobe: touch and spatial processing.

• Temporal lobe: hearing and aspects of memory.

• Occipital lobe: visual processing.

• Broca’s area: speech production.

• Wernicke’s area: language comprehension.

Hemispheric lateralisation

• The brain has two hemispheres, which have some specialised functions.

• Language is usually more strongly associated with the left hemisphere.

• The hemispheres communicate through the corpus callosum.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Scientific: uses objective methods, such as brain scans, genetic studies and measurements of physiological activity.

• Applications: biological explanations have contributed to drug treatments for psychological disorders.

• Biological reductionism: may overlook learning, cognition and social influences.

• Nature versus nurture: genes do not act in isolation; environmental factors can influence outcomes.

• Correlation versus causation: biological differences associated with behaviour do not necessarily cause it.

5. Psychodynamic approachCore assumptions (AO1)

Freud argued that behaviour is influenced by the unconscious mind, childhood experiences and conflicts within personality.

The unconscious

• Contains thoughts, wishes and memories outside conscious awareness.

• These may still influence behaviour.

Tripartite personality

The ego manages conflict between the id, superego and demands of reality.

Defence mechanisms

• Repression: keeps distressing thoughts or memories out of conscious awareness.

• Denial: refuses to accept an upsetting reality.

• Displacement: redirects emotion towards a less threatening target.

Psychosexual stages

Freud argued that unresolved conflict could lead to fixation, affecting adult personality.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Influential: highlighted the potential importance of childhood experiences and unconscious processes.

• Applications: influenced talking therapies and psychoanalysis.

• Difficult to test: unconscious concepts and psychosexual stages are difficult to measure scientifically.

• Evidence limitations: Freud relied heavily on case studies, often involving small, unrepresentative samples.

• Cultural and gender bias: some ideas may reflect the social attitudes of Freud's time.

6. Humanistic approachCore assumptions (AO1)

• Emphasises free will, personal choice and individual experience.

• People have an innate drive towards personal growth and achieving their potential.

• Takes a holistic approach, considering the whole person rather than isolated behaviours.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

From lowest to highest:

1. Physiological: food, water and sleep.

2. Safety: security and protection.

3. Love and belonging: relationships and acceptance.

4. Esteem: confidence, achievement and respect.

5. Self-actualisation: achieving one's potential.

Lower needs generally need sufficient fulfilment before higher needs become the main focus.

Carl Rogers

• Self-concept: how a person sees themselves.

• Ideal self: the person they would like to be.

• Congruence: a match between self-concept and experience/ideal self.

• Incongruence: a mismatch that may cause distress.

• Conditions of worth: feeling valued only when certain expectations are met.

• Unconditional positive regard: acceptance without conditions, supporting healthy self-development.

Person-centred therapy

• Rogers developed a therapy based on empathy, genuineness and unconditional positive regard.

• The aim is to help clients understand themselves and develop a healthier self-concept.

Evaluation (AO3)

• Positive view: recognises personal choice, growth and individual experience.

• Applications: person-centred therapy has influenced counselling.

• Difficult to measure: concepts such as self-actualisation are subjective and hard to operationalise.

• Cultural bias: emphasis on independence and individual achievement may reflect Western values.

• Free will debate: choices can be constrained by biology, upbringing and social circumstances.

7. Comparing the approaches

8. What you need for exam questions

AO1 — knowledge

• Define the approach and explain its assumptions.

• Learn key terminology, theories and processes.

• Know named research where it is specified in your course.

AO3 — evaluation

• Explain strengths and limitations using research, methodology, applications or comparisons.

• Develop each point: make a claim, explain it, then link it to the approach.

• Avoid vague points such as “it is scientific” without explaining why that matters.