European History Flashcards
Black Death
A devastating pandemic that swept through Europe in the mid-14th century.
Significance: Caused massive population decline, social and economic upheaval, and contributed to the decline of feudalism.
Battle of Crécy
A major English victory during the Hundred Years' War in 1346.
Significance: Demonstrated the effectiveness of English longbowmen and marked a turning point in military tactics.
Battle of Agincourt
Another significant English victory in the Hundred Years' War, occurring in 1415.
Significance: Similar to Crécy, highlighted English military dominance due to longbows and strategic deployment.
Joan of Arc
A French peasant girl who claimed divine guidance and led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War.
Significance: A symbol of French nationalism and resistance against English occupation. Her execution as a heretic fueled French resentment.
Ottoman Empire
A powerful Turkish empire that expanded into Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.
Significance: Conquered Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and posing a major threat to Christian Europe.
Janissaries
Elite infantry units in the Ottoman army, composed of Christian boys forcibly converted to Islam.
Significance: Provided a highly disciplined and effective fighting force for the Ottoman Empire.
Divine Comedy
An epic poem by Dante Alighieri, written in the early 14th century.
Significance: A masterpiece of Italian literature that explores themes of sin, redemption, and the afterlife. Reflected medieval worldview but also anticipated Renaissance humanism.
Utopia
A book by Thomas More, published in 1516, describing an ideal society on an imaginary island.
Significance: Explored social and political ideals, criticizing the corruption and inequality of European society. The concept of “utopia” has since been used to describe any ideal or perfect society.
Thomas More
An English lawyer, social philosopher, author, and statesman.
Significance: Known for his book Utopia and his opposition to the English Reformation, which led to his execution by Henry VIII.
Dante Alighieri
An Italian poet of the Middle Ages.
Significance: Author of the Divine Comedy, a foundational work of Italian literature.
Prince Henry the Navigator
A Portuguese prince who sponsored voyages of exploration along the African coast.
Significance: Played a key role in the early development of Portuguese maritime exploration and the establishment of trade routes to Africa and Asia.
Christopher Columbus
An Italian explorer who sailed for Spain and is credited with the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.
Significance: His voyages opened up the Americas to European colonization and trade, leading to profound global changes.
Ferdinand Magellan
A Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.
Significance: His voyage proved that the world was round and established the vastness of the Pacific Ocean.
Conquistador
A Spanish conqueror in the Americas during the 16th century.
Significance: Conquistadors like Cortés and Pizarro were responsible for the conquest of vast territories and the exploitation of indigenous populations.
Hernán Cortés
The Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico.
Significance: His conquest brought vast wealth and territory to Spain and marked a turning point in the history of the Americas.
Enclosure Movement
The process of consolidating common lands into private ownership in England.
Significance: Led to increased agricultural efficiency but also displaced many peasants, contributing to urbanization and social unrest.
Pluralism
The practice of holding multiple church offices simultaneously.
Significance: A sign of corruption within the Church, as it often led to absenteeism and neglect of religious duties.
Absenteeism
The practice of church officials not residing in their assigned parishes or dioceses.
Significance: Another sign of corruption within the Church, as it deprived parishioners of spiritual guidance and services.
Martin Luther
A German theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation with his criticisms of the Catholic Church.
Significance: His ideas led to a religious revolution that divided Europe and had a profound impact on politics, society, and culture.
Desiderius Erasmus
A Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian.
Significance: A leading figure of the Northern Renaissance, he advocated for religious reform and the study of classical texts.
Cuius Regio, Eius Religio
A Latin phrase meaning “Whose realm, his religion”.
Significance: The principle established by the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which allowed rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their territories.
Ulrich Zwingli
A Swiss reformer who was influenced by Erasmus and Luther.
Significance: He introduced reformist ideas in Zurich and played a key role in the Swiss Reformation.
Jean Calvin
A French theologian and reformer who developed the system of Christian theology known as Calvinism.
Significance: His theological ideas had a major impact on the Protestant Reformation and influenced the development of Protestant churches in Europe and beyond.
Ninety-Five Theses
A list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517, criticizing the sale of indulgences.
Significance: Considered the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation.
Council of Trent
A series of meetings held by the Catholic Church from 1545 to 1563.
Significance: A key part of the Counter-Reformation, the Council addressed issues of Church reform and defined Catholic doctrine in response to the Protestant Reformation.
Society of Jesus
A Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola.
Significance: Also known as the Jesuits, they played a major role in the Counter-Reformation, promoting Catholic education and missionary work.
Henry VIII
King of England who broke with the Catholic Church and established the Church of England.
Significance: His actions led to the English Reformation and had a lasting impact on English religion and politics.
Catherine of Aragon
The first wife of Henry VIII.
Significance: Her divorce from Henry VIII, due to his desire for a male heir, led to the English Reformation.
Anne Boleyn
The second wife of Henry VIII.
Significance: Her marriage to Henry VIII further fueled the English Reformation. She was later executed on charges of treason.
Jane Seymour
The third wife of Henry VIII.
Significance: Gave Henry VIII his only legitimate male heir, Edward VI.
Catherine Howard
The fifth wife of Henry VIII.
Significance: Executed for adultery.
Catherine Parr
The sixth wife of Henry VIII.
Significance: Outlived Henry VIII and played a role in the education of Elizabeth I and Edward VI.
Nicolaus Copernicus
A Polish astronomer who developed the heliocentric theory of the solar system.
Significance: His theory challenged the long-held geocentric view and revolutionized astronomy.
Galileo Galilei
An Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer.
Significance: Made significant improvements to the telescope and used it to make astronomical observations that supported the heliocentric theory. Faced opposition from the Catholic Church for his views.
Johannes Kepler
A German astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer.
Significance: Developed the three laws of planetary motion, which further supported the heliocentric theory and provided a mathematical description of planetary orbits.
Isaac Newton
An English physicist and mathematician.
Significance: Developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which revolutionized physics and astronomy.
Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun, formulated by Johannes Kepler.
Significance: 1.\text{The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.}
Significance: 2.\text{A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps equal areas during equal intervals of time.}
Significance: 3.\text{The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.}
Prince-Elector
A member of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire that elected the Holy Roman Emperor.
Significance: These electors wielded considerable power and influence within the Empire.
Reichsunmittelbarkeit
(Imperial immediacy) A status in the Holy Roman Empire whereby a territory or entity was subject only to the authority of the Emperor and not to any intermediate lord.
Significance: Granted significant autonomy and independence to the entities holding this status.
Reichstag
The Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire.
Significance: A representative assembly of the Empire's various states and territories.
Golden Bull
A decree issued by Emperor Charles IV in 1356 that established the process for electing the Holy Roman Emperor.
Significance: It fixed the number of electors at seven and helped to stabilize the political structure of the Empire.
Charles V
Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain.
Significance: Ruled over a vast empire and faced challenges from the Protestant Reformation, the Ottoman Empire, and France.
Habsburg
One of the most influential royal houses of Europe.
Significance: Provided rulers for the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Austria, and other territories for centuries.
Winter King
Frederick V, Elector Palatine, who briefly served as King of Bohemia.
Significance: His acceptance of the Bohemian crown triggered the Thirty Years' War.
Frederick V
Elector Palatine who became King of Bohemia.
Significance: His actions sparked the Thirty Years’ War.
Peace of Augsburg
A treaty signed in 1555 that attempted to resolve conflicts between Catholics and Lutherans within the Holy Roman Empire.
Significance: Established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, allowing rulers to choose the religion of their territory.
Donauwörth
A city in Bavaria that experienced religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics.
Significance: The conflict there contributed to rising tensions within the Holy Roman Empire that led to the Thirty Years' War.
Bohemian Revolt
An uprising of Bohemian Protestants against Habsburg rule.
Significance: The initial trigger for the Thirty Years' War.
Defenestration of Prague
The act of throwing officials out of a window.
Significance: Specifically, the Defenestration of Prague in 1618 is considered the start of the Thirty Years' War.
Albrecht von Wallenstein
A Bohemian military leader who fought for the Habsburgs during the Thirty Years' War.
Significance: A brilliant but ruthless commander, he amassed a vast fortune and played a key role in the early years of the war.
Kipper and Vipper
The debasement of coinage during the Thirty Years' War.
Significance: Contributed to economic instability and hardship.
Gustavus Adolphus
King of Sweden who intervened in the Thirty Years' War.
Significance: His military leadership and innovative tactics helped turn the tide of the war in favor of the Protestants.
Peace of Westphalia
A series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War.
Significance: Established a new framework for international relations based on the principle of state sovereignty.
Treaty of Münster
One of the two treaties composing the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster.
Significance: Primarily concerned with the recognition of Dutch independence by Spain.
Treaty of Osnabrück
The other main treaty of the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Osnabrück.
Significance: Dealt primarily with the internal affairs of the Holy Roman Empire, including religious and political arrangements.