Ethics in Indian Buddhism — Comprehensive Study Notes

Basic Teachings of Buddhist Ethics

• Goal of Buddhist practice: reach freedom from suffering by seeing the world as it is, discarding distorted projections of thoughts and emotions. Ethical action is central because destructive actions cause harm and create mental disturbances that hinder insight.
• Post-goal ethical stance: those who reach freedom act with loving-kindness and compassion toward others, aiding their happiness and freedom.
• Ethics terminology: in Sanskrit, Pāli, Tibetan, there is no exact equivalent of the English term “ethics.” The term most common in translation is śīla (Pāli sīla), usually understood as “moral discipline”—one has śīla when one is disposed to follow a set of moral rules after making a commitment.
• Moral life in Buddhism involves both practice and results: discipline helps prevent harm and supports meditation and awakening; disciplined conduct is connected to karmic outcomes and to the well-being of self and others.
• Adaptation to conditions: Buddhism upholds lofty ethical ideals but emphasizes adapting values to real-world conditions without abandoning compassion and loving-kindness.
• Value of life: animal life is precious; human life even more so; ideally one should refrain from killing, adopt vegetarianism, renounce violence, and live in harmony with nature. In difficult cases, guidance exists on acting appropriately without abandoning compassion.

Forms of Buddhist Ethics

• Western concepts vs Buddhist terminology: some Western terms (e.g., moral obligation, intrinsic vs instrumental value) lack exact Buddhist equivalents; Buddhist texts may describe ethics through concrete guidelines, idealized acts of altruism, and a codified discipline (śīla).
• Ethical orientation in Buddhism: many statements are evaluative (kuśala = “skillful”; śubha = “beautiful”) and exemplary, promoting virtues and prohibitions.
• Karma and rebirth as motivational structure: following moral discipline aims to avoid karmic consequences that harm in future lives; traditional realms of rebirth include hells, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, gods, and titans; later additions sometimes include a sixth realm (asura).
• The six realms (examples of cyclic existence):
  • Hell realms: torment driven by anger and hatred; beings are punished by their own distorted minds.
  • Hungry ghosts: vast appetites with tiny mouths; insatiable craving leads to suffering.
  • Animals: driven by survival and limited behavioral repertoire; perceived as lacking rational autonomy.
  • Humans: instrumental pursuit of desires; potential for Awakening (Nirvana).
  • Titans (asura): competitive and envious, constantly plotting; often lose battles with gods.
  • Gods (deva) in lower heavens: beauty and pleasure but impermanent, with pride and neglect for others.
• Consequences in the cycle: greed, hatred, and delusion tend to drive rebirth into lower realms; better motivations can lead to higher realms of existence.
• Rebirth and Awakening: only in the human realm can Awakening be attained; this is a central motive for moral discipline.
• Major moral disciplines:
  • Five Precepts ( pañca-sīla ): refrain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication.
  • Vows of Individual Liberation (prātimokṣa): stricter monastic prohibitions, including abstaining from all sexual activity and detailed monastic rules.
  • Ten Good Courses of Action (dasa-kusala-kamma-patha) vs Ten Bad Courses of Action: negative phrasing focuses on refraining from harmful actions.
  • Ten Bad: taking life, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, idle chitchat, covetousness, malice, wrong view.
  • Classification: body (1–3), speech (4–7), mind (8–10).
  • Three poisons underpinning action: attraction (greed), aversion (hatred), indifference (ignorance).
• Practical note on drunkenness: Ten Bad Actions exclude drunkenness, possibly because it does not inherently harm others, though it may increase risk of harm.
• Four Divine Abidings (Brahmavihāras): loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuṇā), sympathetic joy (pamudita), equanimity (upekkhā).
  • These are cultivated in the Theravāda tradition and reflected in the Metta Sutta.
• The Four Immeasurables and their role: these emotions are states in which awakened beings rest and act; they are foundational virtues in many lineages.

Theoretical Structure of Buddhist Ethics

• Theravāda vs Mahāyāna vs Vajrayāna: three enduring lineages with distinct aims and practices.
  • Theravāda: saints (Arhat) and/or, for a minority, Buddhas; Nirvana as final goal.
  • Mahāyāna: bodhisattva path; universal compassion; striving to become Buddhas to help all beings; after awakening, still manifest in cyclic existence to aid others.
  • Vajrayāna: Tantric methods; aims aligned with Mahāyāna; sometimes framed as using unconventional means for compassionate ends.
• Key theoretical questions:
  • Are Buddhist ethics fundamentally consequentialist, virtue-ethics-based, or plural/irreducible to one Western framework?
  • Śāntideva’s passages in the Training Anthology suggest a consequentialist reading (universal, aggregative, maximizing happiness/relief of suffering), but scholars debate whether this can be attributed to Buddhism as a whole.
  • Ownerless Suffering Argument (Siderits): your own suffering is no more significant than others'; universal benevolence and impartiality support a form of universalist consequentialism.
  • Some interpret Buddhism as aretaic (virtue-centered) ethics, especially in Theravāda; others see Mahāyāna as more consequentialist, particularly when considering the welfare of all beings.
• Metaethics and normative structure:
  • Some scholars (Hallisey, Garfield) argue for ethical pluralism or particularism: no single overarching theory; multiple moral considerations apply in different contexts.
  • Metaethical questions are underdeveloped in early Buddhist texts; modern proposals include normative gradualism, relativism, and non-essentialist accounts tied to emptiness (śūnyatā).
• Perspectives on well-being and happiness:
  • Various accounts compete: hedonist (pleasure/pain as components of well-being), virtue-based accounts, and hybrid frameworks like character consequentialism or aretaic consequentialism.
  • Śāntideva’s writings are often read as embracing impartial benevolence and a form of universalism; debates continue about whether this commits to utilitarian-style aggregation.
• Distinctions on motivation vs consequences:
  • Much emphasis in Buddhist ethics is on the intention behind actions; a good intention can yield merit even if the outcome is harmful in some cases (context-dependent).
  • The ethics of killing is a major testing ground for various interpretations (consequentialist vs deontological vs virtue-based).
• Three broad interpretive approaches:
  • Consequentialist interpretation (e.g., Śāntideva): welfare of all beings, impartial benevolence, possible aggregation/maximization.
  • Virtue ethics interpretation (e.g., Keown for Theravāda): focus on cultivation of character and virtues as ends in themselves and as means to Nirvana.
  • Normative Gradualism (Hidalgo): what one ought to do depends on one’s stage on the path toward awakening; subjective reasons may align with objective reasons differently at different stages.
• Alternatives to systematic theory: textual/pluralist/particularist approaches emphasize diverse moral reasoning across cases; limited metaethical discussion in early texts; contemporary attempts propose normative frameworks (normative gradualism, metaethical accounts) to accommodate diversity.

Beyond Moral Discipline

• Saints and spontaneous virtue: advanced practitioners may act spontaneously in accordance with compassion even when it would violate ordinary moral rules, raising tensions about rule- and discipline-based ethics.
• Asaṅga and Śāntideva on rule-violating acts for compassion:
  • It may be permissible to lie to save lives, criticize a friend to prevent corruption, overthrow a corrupt ruler, or steal back monastery property to prevent greater harm, provided the motivation and outcomes align with compassion for all beings.
  • The logic often hinges on protecting the many and the greater good, not vengeance or anger.
• Tantric ethics (Vajrayāna): tantric masters may undertake shocking, rule-violating actions purportedly for compassionate outcomes; these acts are framed as transcending conventional ethics while remaining motivated by the welfare of beings.
• Consequentialist flavor in Mahāyāna rule-breaking: if necessary to prevent greater harm, rules may be bypassed in pursuit of compassion and greater good.
• Core distinction: hatred is never justified; violence may be permissible in extreme compassionate scenarios to prevent greater harm, provided the intention remains compassionate and not driven by anger or attachment.

Animals and the Environment

• Nonhuman animals are part of rebirth and are capable of suffering; compassion applies to all sentient beings.
• Human life is seen as more precious because awakening is possible in a human body; killing humans is generally considered worse than killing animals.
• Vegetarianism and diet:
  • Some traditions advocate abstaining from killing and adopting vegetarianism; others (e.g., Theravāda monastics) may eat what is offered, with certain rules about animals killed specifically for them.
• Harmful livelihoods:
  • Hunting, fishing, and other forms of violence are generally discouraged; animal sacrifice is opposed by the Buddhist canon and monastic communities.
• Plants and ecosystems:
  • Plants are not typically regarded as sentient in the same way as animals, but ecological considerations emphasize avoiding harm to living beings and protecting environments that support animal welfare.
• Modern ethics and ecology:
  • Rebirth theory and interdependence support environmental sustainability and ecological awareness in modern Buddhist practice.

War, Violence and Punishment

• General stance: war and violence are morally problematic; soldiers face karmic dangers; violence harms both victims and the aggressor’s mind.
• The Golden Rule-like reasoning in Dhammapada: imagining oneself in others’ positions discourages killing; compassion extends to all beings.
• Pacifism vs exceptional justification:
  • Traditional readings emphasize pacifism; some Mahāyāna and tantric accounts allow for violence in rare, highly compassionate cases to prevent greater harms (e.g., genocide intervention, amputation analogies).
  • Examples from Mahāyāna texts and Candrakīrti/Nāgārjuna: amputation and euthanizing a poisonous threat to prevent greater suffering; evaluating the harms vs benefits of actions in defense of life.
• Defensive or proactive war: some scriptures endorse defensive warfare under strict limitations to protect people; these positions are contextual and controversial within Buddhist ethics.
• Punishment and social order:
  • Nāgārjuna’s Ratnāvalī: punishment should be humane, proportionate, and aimed at rehabilitation; avoid vengeance; punishments should be mild when possible.
  • The rationale for punishment includes incapacitation, deterrence, rehabilitation, and reform, with karmic considerations focused on reducing suffering.

Abortion and Euthanasia

• Abortion: historically, many Buddhists hold a pro-life stance because conception is often treated as the moment of rebirth; abortion forecloses the possibility of awakening for the fetus.
• Contemporary nuances:
  • Some modern Buddhist thinkers question a literal conception-based reincarnation model, noting scientific understandings of consciousness onset (consciousness may begin later in gestation).
  • A gradual or gradual-onset conception view can allow abortions in some cases without fully negating Buddhist ethics or beliefs about rebirth.
• Contraception and public health:
  • Unlike some traditions, Buddhism is not uniformly opposed to contraception and many Buddhists support reducing abortion through contraception access and education.
• Legal and toleration considerations:
  • Buddhist societies vary in legality and enforcement; toleration and political realism often temper strict prohibition with respect for pluralism and the potential karmic harms of coercive law.
• Suicidality and euthanasia:
  • Suicide is generally discouraged; dying mindfully and with awareness is valued; aggressive medical intervention may be considered in some cases where mindful death is unlikely.
  • Euthanasia and assisted suicide raise karmic concerns; motivations must be examined for impurity and the consequences for both patient and physician.
• Tension among values: the Buddhist emphasis on alleviating suffering can support compassionate options in terminal cases, but it must be weighed against non-killing, reverence for life, and karmic considerations.

AI and Technology

• Attention economy and Buddhist ethics: attention is central to Buddhist practice (right mindfulness). The moral evaluation should treat attention as a potentially ethical practice rather than a mere commodity.
• Right attention (samyak-smṛti/sammā-sati): practice of focused, clear attention without confusion or attachment; attachment is a root of wrong action.
• Privacy and surveillance capitalism:
  • Modern concerns about data as a commodity intersect with Buddhist views on attachment, ignorance, and craving; pervasive data practices can distort perception and exacerbate suffering.
• Buddhist responses to tech and AI focus on reducing suffering through mindful engagement, resisting manipulative nudges, and maintaining ethical awareness in digital life.
• Jake Davis and ethical meta-ethics: some approaches attempt to ground normativity in the dispositions and mental states of the wise, while Jonathan Gold emphasizes relativism and the practical (conventional) nature of ethics within Buddhist contexts.

Key Terms and Concepts for Quick Reference

• śīla (Pāli sīla): moral discipline; commitment to follow a set of rules.
• Five Precepts: 5 prohibitions—kill, steal, sexual misconduct, lie, intoxication.
• Vows of Individual Liberation: stricter monastic rules; no sexual activity; monastic etiquette.
• Ten Good Courses of Action (dasas-kusala-kamma-patha) vs Ten Bad Courses of Action: chiefly refraining from the listed behaviors.
• Three Poisons: 3 primary mental causes of unwholesome states—greed, hatred, ignorance.
• Four Divine Abidings (Brahmavihāras): metta, karuṇā, pamudita, upekkhā.
• Six Perfections (pāramitā): 6 virtues in Mahāyāna path—generosity (dāna), moral discipline (śīla), patience (kṣānti), perseverance (vīrya), meditative stability (dhyāna), wisdom (prajñā).
• Threefold purity: bodhisattva’s purity of self, action, and recipient; non-self-based perspective used to transcend ordinary notions of generosity.
• Pacing and translation: terms such as arhat, bodhisattva, Śrāvaka, Hīnayāna used in historical contexts; modern neutral terms include Mainstream Buddhism.
• The Six Realms and cosmology: the cycle includes hells, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, titans, gods; belief about how actions influence rebirth.
• The Ownerless Suffering Argument: ethical impartiality argument attributed to Śāntideva and others suggesting universal benevolence via no-self and interdependence.
• Normative Gradualism (Hidalgo): the oughts depend on progress along the path; subjective vs objective reasons distinction.
• Metaethics in Buddhism: debates about conventional vs ultimate truth; relativism vs universal claims; emptiness (śūnyatā) as framework for accessing normative statements.
• Ultimate vs conventional truth: ethical claims often framed as practical guidelines for living in the conventional sense, while ultimate truth concerns emptiness and lack of inherent essence.

Summary of Ethical Theories in Buddhist Context (Western Interpretations)

• Consequentialism in Buddhism:
  • Some passages (e.g., Śāntideva) emphasize outcomes like reducing suffering for all beings; aggregation may be implied: total happiness minus total suffering across all beings.
  • Classical utilitarianism: aggregative, maximizing, universalist, hedonist, consequentialist framework; the Śāntideva passage can be read as aligning with this model, though debates persist about scope and applicability to the Buddhist tradition as a whole.
• Virtue ethics in Buddhism:
  • Emphasizes cultivation of character traits and virtues as central to ethical life; Nirvana and enlightenment as the ultimate good guiding virtue formation (not merely external outcomes).
  • Keown’s interpretation highlights virtue-centered aims and the role of Nirvana in Theravāda ethics as analogous to the good in virtue ethics.
• Aretaic/aretaic consequentialism:
  • Indirect form of consequentialism where character traits are the primary objects of evaluation; the well-being of sentient beings remains central, and virtues contribute to overall happiness.
• Normative Gradualism and pluralism:
  • Hidalgo’s approach accounts for varying reasons depending on the path stage; it aligns with the idea that ethics may be context-dependent and not easily reducible to a single theory.
• Metaethics and relativism:
  • Some philosophers (Gold) argue for relativism in ethics within Buddhist frameworks, distinguishing conventional and ultimate truth; ethics as practice aimed at reducing suffering rather than matching universal, timeless normative claims.

Examples and Illustrative Cases Mentioned

• Channa and the Buddha’s death: Channa’s intention to perform a meritorious act of generosity resulted in harm due to contaminated food; intention mattered for karmic outcomes.
• The amputation/murder analogies in Mahāyāna texts: killing one to save others (e.g., amputation of a poison- bitten finger or killing a murderous hunter’s son) used to illustrate proportionality and the harm-to-lesser-evil calculus.
• The Range of the Bodhisattva and defensive warfare: some Mahāyāna sources permit defensive war under strict constraints and with compassionate aims to protect people.
• The Bodhisattva paradox: non-self and lack of intrinsic self guide generosity and the reasons for karmic outcomes; the Ownerless Suffering Argument supports universality of welfare.
• The Metta Sutta as a canonical articulation of loving-kindness and its practical status in Theravāda societies today.
• The interplay between compassion in practice and the rules of discipline, showing how advanced practitioners may override ordinary precepts under compassionate motivation (Asaṅga, Śāntideva).

Ethical Implications and Real-World Relevance

• The Buddhist approach to ethics blends moral discipline, compassionate action, and the aim of Awakening, with an emphasis on interdependence and the prevention of suffering for all beings.
• Ethical decision-making often involves evaluating intention, consequences, and the broader karmic trajectory, rather than applying a single universal rule.
• In modern contexts (AI, privacy, environment, euthanasia, war), Buddhist ethics emphasizes mindful attention, avoidance of attachment, and compassionate responses that minimize suffering while considering practical constraints and pluralism.
• The tension between individual liberation (Theravāda) and universal welfare (Mahāyāna) informs how different Buddhist communities engage moral questions in policy and social practice.

Key Formulas and Numerical References to Remember

• Five Precepts: 5 prohibitions (non-killing, non-stealing, non-sexual misconduct, non-falsehood, non-intoxication).
• Ten Bad Courses of Action: 10 items (body: 1-3; speech: 4-7; mind: 8-10).
• Six Realms of Rebirth: 6 realms (hells, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, titans, gods).
• Six Perfections: 6 virtues (dāna, śīla, kṣānti, vīrya, dhyāna, prajñā).
• Three Poisons: 3 (greed, hatred, ignorance).
• Four Divine Abidings: metta, karuṇā, pamudita, upekkhā.
• Utilitarian formula (illustrative): maximize total welfare across beings, i.e., ext{maximize} \ \, \sum{i=1}^n ui for utilities $u_i$ of all beings.
• Threefold purity: practice of giving without clinging to a substantial self, the giver, or the recipient.

Note: The above notes condense and organize the key ideas from the transcript on Ethics in Indian Buddhism, preserving major and minor points, examples, and the range of interpretations discussed in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry. The content is organized to support exam preparation and cross-reference with common Buddhist terms and concepts.