General psycology exam 1

Life Span Development Review Sheet

I. Principles of Development

• People change and develop throughout life.

• Change can be gradual or sudden.

II. Methods of Studying Development

1. Cross-Sectional – Compares different age groups at one point in time.

2. Longitudinal – Follows the same individuals over time.

3. Sequential – Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.

III. Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• A major issue in life span development.

• Twin Studies: One way to study this is by observing twins reared apart.

IV. Critical vs. Sensitive Periods

• Critical Period: A skill must be learned at a particular time (e.g., language acquisition).

• Sensitive Period: A skill is best learned at a particular time but can still be acquired later.

• Relationships also have critical or sensitive periods.

Examples from Animal Studies

• Lorenz's Imprinting in Geese & Ducks:

  • Newly hatched geese follow the first moving figure they see, usually their mother.

  • 4Ensures survival by keeping them close to a caretaker.

• Harlow’s Monkeys (Attachment Study):

  • Experiment: Infant monkeys were given a choice between:

    • A wire mother that provided food.

    • A cloth mother that provided comfort.

  • Findings:

    • Monkeys preferred the cloth mother, proving that contact comfort is more important than food.

    • Monkeys raised without a real mother became poor parents later.

    • Peer interactions helped somewhat to mitigate these effects.

V. Human Attachment

Spitz’s Orphanage Study

• Studied infants in an Iranian orphanage.

• Despite being well-fed and cared for physically, infants received little social interaction.

• Results: Babies became lethargic, and some even died.

• Conclusion: Infants need love and social interaction, not just material needs.

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

• Attachment to a primary caregiver is essential for survival.

• Key Behaviors:

  1. Proximity Seeking – Infants need to stay close to their attachment figure.

  2. Sense of Security – They feel safe when the caregiver is present.

  3. Separation Anxiety – They feel distressed when the caregiver is absent.

• Evolutionary Purpose:

  • In ancestral environments, an infant left alone would likely die.

• Attachment Milestones:

  • Separation Anxiety & Stranger Anxiety begin at 6-7 months.

  • Peaks at 2 years.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (Attachment Types)

• Experiment: Mother leaves a toddler (1.5–2 years old) in a room and then returns.

• Attachment Styles:

  1. Secure Attachment (60%) – Welcomes the mother back, seeks comfort.

  2. Ambivalent/Anxious (10%) – Wants the mother back but also expresses anger.

  3. Avoidant (25%) – Ignores or turns away from the mother.

  4. Disorganized (5%) – Freaks out, acts erratic (most concerning).

• Long-Term Effects of Attachment Styles:

  • Secure children → High self-esteem, social competence, sensitivity to others.

  • Avoidant children → Detached, insecure, difficulty discussing feelings.

  • Anxious children → Nervous, unsure, have inconsistent relationships.

• Cultural Differences:

  • Israel & Japan → More anxious children.

  • Germany → More avoidant children.

VI. Stages of Life (Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development)

• Covers development from infancy to death.

• Each stage presents a developmental task that can be resolved in a healthy or unhealthy way.

VII. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

• Basic Concepts:

  1. Assimilation – Fitting new information into existing categories.

  2. Accommodation – Changing categories to fit new information.

  3. Equilibration – Balancing assimilation and accommodation to form a stable understanding.

• Stage Descriptions:

  • Sensorimotor Stage: Thinking is based on senses and actions.

  • Preoperational Stage: Can represent absent objects but struggles with understanding transformations.

  • Concrete Operational Stage: Understands transformations but still struggles with abstract thought.

  • Formal Operational Stage: Can think abstractly and manipulate ideas mentally.

    Life Span Development Review Sheet

    I. Principles of Development

    • People change and develop throughout life.

    • Change can be gradual or sudden.

    ---

    II. Methods of Studying Development

    1. Cross-Sectional – Compares different age groups at one point in time.

    2. Longitudinal – Follows the same individuals over time.

    3. Sequential – Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.

    ---

    III. Nature vs. Nurture Debate

    • A major issue in life span development.

    • Twin Studies: One way to study this is by observing twins reared apart.

    ---

    IV. Critical vs. Sensitive Periods

    • Critical Period: A skill must be learned at a particular time (e.g., language acquisition).

    • Sensitive Period: A skill is best learned at a particular time but can still be acquired later.

    • Relationships also have critical or sensitive periods.

    Examples from Animal Studies

    • Lorenz's Imprinting in Geese & Ducks:

      • Newly hatched geese follow the first moving figure they see, usually their mother.

      • 4Ensures survival by keeping them close to a caretaker.

    • Harlow’s Monkeys (Attachment Study):

      • Experiment: Infant monkeys were given a choice between:

        • A wire mother that provided food.

        • A cloth mother that provided comfort.

      • Findings:

        • Monkeys preferred the cloth mother, proving that contact comfort is more important than food.

        • Monkeys raised without a real mother became poor parents later.

        • Peer interactions helped somewhat to mitigate these effects.

    ---

    V. Human Attachment

    Spitz’s Orphanage Study

    • Studied infants in an Iranian orphanage.

    • Despite being well-fed and cared for physically, infants received little social interaction.

    • Results: Babies became lethargic, and some even died.

    • Conclusion: Infants need love and social interaction, not just material needs.

    Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

    • Attachment to a primary caregiver is essential for survival.

    • Key Behaviors:

      1. Proximity Seeking – Infants need to stay close to their attachment figure.

      2. Sense of Security – They feel safe when the caregiver is present.

      3. Separation Anxiety – They feel distressed when the caregiver is absent.

    • Evolutionary Purpose:

      • In ancestral environments, an infant left alone would likely die.

    • Attachment Milestones:

      • Separation Anxiety & Stranger Anxiety begin at 6-7 months.

      • Peaks at 2 years.

    Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (Attachment Types)

    • Experiment: Mother leaves a toddler (1.5–2 years old) in a room and then returns.

    • Attachment Styles:

      1. Secure Attachment (60%) – Welcomes the mother back, seeks comfort.

      2. Ambivalent/Anxious (10%) – Wants the mother back but also expresses anger.

      3. Avoidant (25%) – Ignores or turns away from the mother.

      4. Disorganized (5%) – Freaks out, acts erratic (most concerning).

    • Long-Term Effects of Attachment Styles:

      • Secure children → High self-esteem, social competence, sensitivity to others.

      • Avoidant children → Detached, insecure, difficulty discussing feelings.

      • Anxious children → Nervous, unsure, have inconsistent relationships.

    • Cultural Differences:

      • Israel & Japan → More anxious children.

      • Germany → More avoidant children.

    ---

    VI. Stages of Life (Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development)

    • Covers development from infancy to death.

    • Each stage presents a developmental task that can be resolved in a healthy or unhealthy way.

    Stage	Age	Positive Outcome
    Trust vs. Mistrust	0-18 months	Hope
    Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt	2-3 years	Will (willpower)
    Initiative vs. Guilt	3-6 years	Purpose
    Industry vs. Inferiority	7-11 years	Competence
    Identity vs. Role Confusion	Adolescence	Loyalty & Fidelity
    Intimacy vs. Isolation	Young adulthood (20s-30s)	Love
    Generativity vs. Stagnation	Middle-age (40-60)	Care
    Ego Integrity vs. Despair	Old age (60-end)	Wisdom

    ---

    VII. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

    • Basic Concepts:

      1. Assimilation – Fitting new information into existing categories.

      2. Accommodation – Changing categories to fit new information.

      3. Equilibration – Balancing assimilation and accommodation to form a stable understanding.

    Stage	Age	Key Development
    Sensorimotor	0-2 years	Object permanence (understanding objects exist even when out of sight)
    Preoperational	2-7 years	Egocentrism, conservation failure (focuses on static images rather than transformations)
    Concrete Operational	7-12 years	Can mentally reverse changes (understands transformations)
    Formal Operational	12+ years	Abstract thinking (can manipulate ideas without needing concrete examples)

    • Stage Descriptions:

      • Sensorimotor Stage: Thinking is based on senses and actions.

      • Preoperational Stage: Can represent absent objects but struggles with understanding transformations.

      • Concrete Operational Stage: Understands transformations but still struggles with abstract thought.

      • Formal Operational Stage: Can think abstractly and manipulate ideas mentally.

        Memory Review Sheet

        I. Definition of Memory

        • Memory: The process of retaining an experience for future use.

        • Memory involves three key functions:

          1. Processing information

          2. Storing information

          3. Retrieving information

        ---

        II. Memory Systems

        A. Classic Model of Memory

        1. Sensory Memory (Iconic Memory)

           • Stores brief sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory).

           • Duration: ~½ second.

           • Capacity: ~3 items.

        2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

           • Holds information for 20-30 seconds.

           • Capacity: ~7 items (±3).

           • Enhancement Strategies:

             • Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.

             • Rehearsal: Repeating information to retain it.

           • STM = Consciousness (actively processing information).

        3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

           • Stores information indefinitely.

           • Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

           • Retrieval Process: When recalling something, information moves from LTM to STM.

        B. Problems with the Classic Model

        • The serial processing assumption (sensory → STM → LTM) is incorrect.

        • The brain processes multiple things in parallel.

        • STM is not passive; it is active and manipulative (e.g., problem-solving, social thought).

        C. Working Memory (Updated STM Model)

        • Working Memory replaces Short-Term Memory because it actively manipulates information rather than just storing it.

    Memory Review Sheet

    I. Definition of Memory

    • Memory: The process of retaining an experience for future use.

    • Memory involves three key functions:

      1. Processing information

      2. Storing information

      3. Retrieving information

    ---

    II. Memory Systems

    A. Classic Model of Memory

    1. Sensory Memory (Iconic Memory)

       • Stores brief sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory).

       • Duration: ~½ second.

       • Capacity: ~3 items.

    2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

       • Holds information for 20-30 seconds.

       • Capacity: ~7 items (±3).

       • Enhancement Strategies:

         • Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.

         • Rehearsal: Repeating information to retain it.

       • STM = Consciousness (actively processing information).

    3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

       • Stores information indefinitely.

       • Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

       • Retrieval Process: When recalling something, information moves from LTM to STM.

    B. Problems with the Classic Model

    • The serial processing assumption (sensory → STM → LTM) is incorrect.

    • The brain processes multiple things in parallel.

    • STM is not passive; it is active and manipulative (e.g., problem-solving, social thought).

    C. Working Memory (Updated STM Model)

    • Working Memory replaces Short-Term Memory because it actively manipulates information rather than just storing it.

II. Brain Structure and Functions

A. Hindbrain (Basic Vital Functions)

• Reticular Formation: Controls consciousness and arousal.

B. Midbrain (Relay Station for Sensory Information)

• Plays a role in motor movement and auditory/visual processing.

C. Subcortical Forebrain (Regulation and Emotional Processing)

• Hypothalamus: Regulates eating, sleep, sex, emotions, and homeostasis.

• Thalamus: Acts as a routing center for sensory information.

Limbic System (Emotions, Motivation, Learning, and Memory)

• Septal Area: Involved in emotionally significant learning.

• Amygdala: Responsible for emotional memory, learning, anxiety, and fear.

• Hippocampus: Critical for explicit memory formation.

III. Cerebral Cortex (Higher Cognitive Functions)

• Makes up 80% of the brain.

• Structure:

  • Convoluted and gray for increased surface area.

• Primary Areas: Receive information from the senses.

• Association Areas: Process and interpret sensory information (largest part).

A. Brain Hemispheres & Lobes

• Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex:

1. Occipital Lobe (Back): Vision.

2. Parietal Lobe (Front of Occipital): Sensory processing and recognition based on sensitivity.

3. Frontal Lobe (Front): Planning, social skills, abstract thinking, personality.

4. Temporal Lobe (Sides & Low): Hearing and language.

IV. Split Brain Research

• Left Hemisphere: Specializes in verbal processing.

• Right Hemisphere: Specializes in spatial abilities.

Studies on Split Brain Patients

1. Point vs. Speak:

   • Patients can point to an object with the left hand but cannot name it verbally if processed by the right hemisphere.

2. Emotional Responses:

   • Patients react differently to watching funny vs. scary movies depending on hemisphere function.

3. Gender & Handedness:

   • Females and left-handed individuals show less lateralization (functions are more shared between hemispheres).

V. Other Brain Studies & Conditions

• Prosopagnosia: Inability to recognize faces but can respond to them emotionally.

• Implicit vs. Explicit Memory:

  • Example: An Alzheimer’s patient playing golf with Schacter could improve (implicit memory) but not consciously remember learning (explicit memory).

VI. Influencing the Brain

• Experience vs. Heredity: Both environment (life experiences, learning) and genetics (hereditary traits) shape brain function.

Nervous System Notes

I. Endocrine System

• Function: Glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

• Example: Adrenaline (epinephrine) helps prepare the body for "fight or flight."

II. Nervous System Overview

• Function: Controls and coordinates bodily functions and processes sensory information.

• Main Components:

  • Brain

  • Spinal Cord

  • Neurons (basic unit of the nervous system)

• There are 70-100 billion neurons in the nervous system.

III. Neurons and Neural Communication

• Neurons function as on-off devices – they either fire or do not fire.

• Communication Between Neurons:

  • Neurons send electrical signals that turn into chemical signals.

  • Each neuron is connected to about 1,000 other neurons, with some connecting to up to 30,000.

• Speed of Neurons vs. Computers:

  • Neurons operate in hundredths of a second.

  • Computers operate in billionths of a second (nanoseconds).

  • Despite being slower, neurons create infinite combinations and networks, making complex human thoughts, emotions, and actions possible.

IV. Types of Neurons

• Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons) – Carry messages to the brain.

• Efferent Neurons (Motor Neurons) – Carry messages from the brain to the body.

• Interneurons – Connect sensory and motor neurons within the spinal cord and brain.

V. Parts of a Neuron

• Dendrites – Receive signals from other neurons.

• Axon – Transmits the electrical signal.

• Myelin Sheath – Fatty layer that insulates the axon and speeds up signal transmission.

• Terminal Buttons – Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

VI. How a Neuron Fires (Action Potential)

1. Dendrites receive stimulation from another neuron.

2. An electrical signal travels down the axon.

3. Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

4. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the next neuron, continuing the signal.

   Memory Review Sheet

   I. Definition of Memory

   • Memory: The process of retaining an experience for future use.

   • Memory involves three key functions:

     1. Processing information

     2. Storing information

     3. Retrieving information

   ---

   II. Memory Systems

   A. Classic Model of Memory

   1. Sensory Memory (Iconic Memory)

      • Stores brief sensory information (e.g., visual, auditory).

      • Duration: ~½ second.

      • Capacity: ~3 items.

   2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

      • Holds information for 20-30 seconds.

      • Capacity: ~7 items (±3).

      • Enhancement Strategies:

        • Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.

        • Rehearsal: Repeating information to retain it.

      • STM = Consciousness (actively processing information).

   3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

      • Stores information indefinitely.

      • Capacity: Virtually unlimited.

      • Retrieval Process: When recalling something, information moves from LTM to STM.

   B. Problems with the Classic Model

   • The serial processing assumption (sensory → STM → LTM) is incorrect.

   • The brain processes multiple things in parallel.

   • STM is not passive; it is active and manipulative (e.g., problem-solving, social thought).

   C. Working Memory (Updated STM Model)

   • Working Memory replaces Short-Term Memory because it actively manipulates information rather than just storing it.

   ---

   III. Types of Memory

   A. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)

   • Requires conscious recall (stored in the hippocampus & cortex).

   • Types:

     1. Semantic Memory – General knowledge (facts, concepts).

     2. Episodic Memory – Personal experiences (autobiographical).

   • Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon:

     • A failure of explicit memory retrieval, showing different memory systems.

   B. Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory)

   • Does not require conscious recall.

   • Types:

     1. Procedural Memory – Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike, typing).

     2. Associations – Learned responses (e.g., priming, classical conditioning).

   • Developmental Timeline:

     • Implicit memory is present from birth.

     • Explicit memory develops after age 3, explaining childhood amnesia.

     • Brain Damage & Amnesia:

       • Damage to explicit memory systems (e.g., HM, Schacter’s golf buddy) results in amnesia.

   ---

   IV. Memory Encoding

   A. Levels of Processing

   1. Shallow Encoding – Focus on surface characteristics (e.g., physical appearance, sounds).

   2. Deep Encoding – Focus on meaning and nuance (more effective for retention).

   B. Context Effects on Memory

   • We recall information better in the same context where it was learned.

   • Examples:

     • Retracing steps to remember what you were looking for.

     • Mood-dependent memory: When angry, we recall past angry experiences; when happy, we recall happy memories.

     • Studies: Learning underwater results in better recall underwater; learning in different states of consciousness improves recall in that same state.

   ---

   V. How Memory is Constructed

   • Memories are not exact copies of experience; they are reconstructions that change over time.

   • Information is stored associatively, meaning it is linked to related concepts.

   Schemas

   • Schemas: Mental structures that help organize and interpret information.

   • They influence what we remember and how we recall it.

     Methods and Approaches Review Sheet

     I. Main Approaches to Psychology

     1. Psychodynamic Approach

     • Key Idea: Most of psychological functioning is unconscious.

     • Core Constructs:

       • Associative networks: Thinking is understood through connections between ideas.

       • Conflict and compromise shape behavior and thought.

     2. Behavioral Approach

     • Key Idea: Focuses only on observable behavior; does not study mental processes.

     • Core Constructs:

       • Stimulus-Response (S-R) Model – Behavior is a reaction to stimuli.

       • Learning and reinforcement – Behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments.

     3. Cognitive Approach

     • Key Idea: Studies mental processes and how people process information.

     • Core Constructs:

       • Perception – Taking in information.

       • Processing – Transforming and interpreting information.

       • Storage & Retrieval – How we remember and use information.

     4. Biological Approach

     • Key Idea: Behavior and mental processes are shaped by brain function, evolution, and genetics.

     • Core Constructs:

       • Natural Selection – Psychological traits may have evolved for survival.

       • Nervous System – Brain activity and neurotransmitters influence behavior.

     5. Humanistic Approach (Not Covered Yet)

     • Focuses on motivation, free will, and personal growth.

     ---

     II. Measures Psychologists Use

     1. Self-Report

     • Methods: Tests, surveys, and polls.

     • Strengths: Easy to administer, allows personal insight.

     • Weaknesses: People may be dishonest or biased.

     2. Behavioral Measures

     • Observing what people do, rather than what they say.

     • Example: Measuring reaction times or tracking social interactions.

     3. Projective Tests

     • Tests with no right or wrong answers; people "project" their personality onto the test.

     • Example: Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

     4. Observation

     • Watching people in natural settings or controlled environments.

     • Example: Observing children in a classroom.

     5. Interviews

     • Asking detailed questions to gather in-depth information.

     • Types: Structured (fixed questions) vs. Unstructured (open-ended).

     6. Studying the Brain

     • Techniques: fMRI, EEG, brain lesions, and studying individuals with brain damage.

     ---

     III. Research Methods

     1. Case Studies

     • In-depth study of a single person or group over time.

     • Example: Studying a patient with unique brain damage.

     2. Naturalistic Observation

     • Observing behavior in real-world settings without interference.

     • Example: Watching how children interact on a playground.

     3. Surveys

     • Collecting data from a large group through questionnaires or interviews.

     • Strength: Can study many people quickly.

     • Weakness: Responses may be biased or inaccurate.

     4. Brain & Physiological Techniques

     • Methods:

       • fMRI – Measures brain activity.

       • Lesions – Studying damage to the brain.

       • Natural Damage – Examining individuals with brain injuries.

     5. Experiments

     • Manipulating variables to determine cause and effect.

     • Example: Testing whether sleep deprivation affects memory.

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     IV. Statistics in Psychology

     1. Comparing Groups

     • Used in experiments to see if one group differs from another.

     • Example: Testing whether people who exercise perform better on cognitive tests.

     2. Correlations

     • Examining relationships between two variables.

     • Example: Studying the link between stress and heart disease.

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     V. Ethics in Psychological Research

     • Institutional Review Board (IRB): Ensures research follows ethical guidelines.

     • Key Ethical Principles:

       • Informed Consent – Participants must agree to the study knowingly.

       • Confidentiality – Personal information must be protected.

       • Debriefing – Participants must be told the study's purpose afterward.

       • Minimizing Harm – Researchers must avoid causing physical or emotional distress.

Learning Review Sheet

Definition of Learning:
An enduring change in the way a person responds based on experience.

Behavioral Approach to Learning

• Learning is central to the behavioral approach.

• Relies on Classical Conditioning (CC) and Instrumental/Operant Conditioning (IC).

Classical Conditioning (CC) - Pavlov

• Key Terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) → Unconditioned Response (UCR)

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → Conditioned Response (CR)

• Processes in Classical Conditioning:

  • Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli.

  • Discrimination: Not responding to different stimuli.

  • Extinction: CR fades if CS is not presented.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: CR reappears after a period.

• Types of Classical Conditioning:

  • Appetitive (Positive): Easily disrupted/extinguished.

  • Aversive (Traumatic): Hard to change, can form in one trial.

• Timing between CS and UCS is critical.

Instrumental/Operant Conditioning (IC)

• Key Concept: Behavior (R) comes first, followed by reinforcement (S).

• Person is active (unlike CC, where person is passive).

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect:

  • Learning is influenced by recency and frequency of experience.

  • Learned behaviors become relatively permanent.

• Types of Reinforcement:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding stimulus to strengthen behavior.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing stimulus to strengthen behavior.

  • Punishment: Reduces probability of behavior.

• Schedules of Reinforcement:

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Every response is reinforced.

  • Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs sometimes.

    • Ratio: Fixed or variable (based on number of responses).

    • Interval: Fixed or variable (based on time intervals).

Modeling and Observational Learning

• Learning by watching others.

• Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study: Showed how aggression can be learned through observation.

Learned Helplessness & Explanatory Style

• Seligman’s Study: Dogs exposed to unavoidable shocks developed helplessness.

• Humans interpret negative events, influencing helplessness or depression.

• Explanatory Styles:

  • Internal vs. External (Cause is within or outside self)

  • Stable vs. Temporary (Cause is consistent or changeable)

  • Global vs. Specific (Cause affects many areas or just one)

Insight Learning

• Kohler’s Study: Chimps solved problems (e.g., using a stick and chair to get a banana) through insight rather than trial-and-error.

This sheet provides an overview of key concepts in learning psychology. Use it for quick review and reinforcement!