Study Notes on Social Structure and Crime CRIM Chapter 9

Social Structure and Crime

The “Chicago School” and Early Social Ecology

  • Social Ecology: The study of how human relationships are influenced by a specific environment.

  • Robert E. Park:

    • Viewed the city as a natural laboratory for studying crime.

    • Identified a connection between animal behaviors in natural settings and human behaviors in urban settings.

  • Ernest Burgess:

    • Proposed that cities develop in a systematic manner, expanding outward from a central point into concentric zones.

    • Noted the "zone in transition", which is characterized by social instability and significant concern regarding crime.

Early Social Ecology: Concentric Zone Theory

  • Concentric Zone Theory:

    • Illustrated urban development in concentric circles.

    • Each zone represents different social characteristics, with the innermost zone being the most affected by crime.

Social Disorganization Theory

  • Macro-Level Theory:

    • Developed by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay.

    • Analyzed crime distribution, discovering that crime is most prevalent in the zone in transition.

    • Conducted empirical mapping of delinquent addresses in Chicago showing density of delinquency.

    • Resulted in the formulation of Social Disorganization Theory to explain crime patterns.

Ecological Characteristics of the Zone in Transition

  • Characteristics Include:

    • Physical decay of environment

    • Population heterogeneity (diversity)

    • High social mobility among residents

    • Elevated poverty levels

  • Impact on Crime:

    • Impeded informal social control due to poor community cohesion.

    • Residents are less familiar with and trusting of one another, reducing social intervention.

    • Leads to the cultural transmission of criminal values within neighborhoods once crime becomes established.

Evolution of Social Disorganization Theory

  • Initially prevalent from the 1950s to 1960s but declined in popularity thereafter.

  • Experienced revival in the last 25 years, notably through Sampson and Grove’s 1989 analysis of the British Crime Survey, which empirically measured components of social disorganization.

  • Sampson's Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) tested social disorganization more rigorously.

    • Coined "collective efficacy" to explain efficiency in social control based on community familiarity and trust.

    • Findings validated the core propositions of the original theory.

Modern Research Model of Social Disorganization Theory

  • Illustrated current understanding and applications of social disorganization theory.

Race, Place, and Crime

  • Racial Disparities in Crime:

    • Social disorganization and collective efficacy contribute to differing rates of serious violent crime among racial groups.

    • Incarceration disparities:

    • Blacks: incarceration rate is nearly 3 times higher than Hispanics and 7 times higher than Whites.

    • African Americans are more likely to live in neighborhoods lacking collective efficacy.

  • Sampson and Wilson’s Insights:

    • Isolation from mainstream society and living in high-crime areas shape the cognitive environment of youth.

    • Youth are more prone to witness violence, encounter poor role models, and have easier access to weapons.

Hot Spots of Criminal Behavior

  • Research employs analysis of microgeographic units for understanding crime patterns.

  • Notably, even neighborhoods perceived as “bad” may contain many decent areas, indicating that smaller, specific locations drive crime statistics.

  • Advances in geocoding and geographic information systems (GIS) have facilitated routine identification of crime hot spots by police departments.

Policy Implications: Social Ecology and Social Disorganization

  • Chicago Area Project (CAP) by Shaw and McKay:

    • Aimed to mobilize local informal social organizations for crime control.

    • Recommended establishing community committees to combat delinquency and criminal influences.

    • Suggested improvements to physical environment (sanitation, traffic control, etc.).

  • Outcomes were mixed but indicated positive results.

Additional Policy Recommendations

  • Ecological Focus:

    • Urban-renewal initiatives to address blighted areas, combining public and private housing.

    • Address concerns about gentrification, which could displace lower-income residents.

  • Collective Efficacy Focus:

    • Promoting neighborhood watch programs and informal community organizations (e.g., sports leagues, churches).

Criminal Justice System Implications

  • Emphasis on community policing:

    • Encouraging active collaboration with community residents to identify and solve local issues related to crime.

Subcultural Explanations of Crime

  • Cohen: Explored dynamics of delinquent boys.

  • Cloward and Ohlin: Introduced the concept of differential opportunity.

  • Miller: Identified focal concerns of lower-class values influencing behavior.

  • Elijah Anderson: Defined the "Code of the Streets" in urban contexts.

Walter B. Miller: Focal Concerns of the Lower Class

  • Lower-class identified as a subculture,

    • High prevalence of female-led households resulting in less supervision for youth.

    • Youth learn adult male behaviors from peers, especially on street corners.

    • Six focal concerns identified: trouble, toughness, street smarts, excitement, fate, and autonomy.

Elijah Anderson: Code of the Streets

  • Outlines behavioral norms prevalent in underprivileged African American neighborhoods.

  • Governed by informal rules, primarily centered around maintaining respect,

    • Fear of disrespect can prompt violence, which is subsequently tolerated.

General Critique of Subcultural Explanations

  • Critiqued for their narrow scope:

    • Focus mainly on lower-class boys, neglecting white-collar crime, middle-class crime, and female offending.

    • Majority of lower-class individuals uphold conventional societal values.