Language And Communication
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Definition of Language
Language encompasses a wide variety of definitions. Below are definitions provided by renowned linguists as captured in Agyekum (2010):
Communication System: Language is a human system of communication that utilizes arbitrary signals such as voice sound, gestures, and written symbols.
Vocal Symbols: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Collections of Symbols: Language is a collection of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings governed by rules and conventions, which facilitate effective communication.
Arbitrary Vocal Symbols: Language is defined as arbitrary vocal symbols, through which human beings communicate and cooperate.
Cultural Introduction: Language is the process by which individuals are introduced to their culture and their physical and social environments. Language impacts individuals' perceptions and conceptualizations of the world.
Key Concept: Arbitrariness of Language
The term arbitrariness is a key aspect of language definitions.
Definition: Language is arbitrary because there exists no one-to-one correspondence between letters, symbols, and the words they represent in communication.
Language is both arbitrary and conventionalized; the sounds that compile words have no logical relation to the meanings of those words, yet societies conventionally accept them.
Theoretical Perspectives on Language
Sapir (1970): Language is primarily a system of phonetic symbols for expressing communicable thoughts and feelings; it comprises rules and standards governing speech behavior.
Halliday (1985): Language evolved to satisfy human needs, and its organization is functional concerning these needs, suggesting that it is not arbitrary.
Malinowski's Ethnographic Theory: Language is not only a means for expressing ideas but also for achieving practical effects. Analyzing language requires considering cultural appropriateness alongside social, political, cultural, and economic factors affecting speech.
Ferdinand De Saussure's Definition: Language is a system of signs consisting of a signifier (linguistic code) and a signified (the idea represented by that object). He states that a sign is arbitrary, with no intrinsic connection between signifier and signified, except in cases of ideophones.
Properties of Language
1. Displacement of Language
Definition: The ability to use language to discuss items or events that are present, past, or future.
Language allows individuals to communicate about both proximate and distant subjects, including mythical creatures and abstract concepts.
Contrast with Animal Language: Animal communication typically lacks displacement since it focuses on immediate, relevant situations; however, instances like bee communication may exhibit some displacement properties.
2. Productivity of Language
Definition: Language's ability to generate and comprehend an infinite number of messages never previously expressed, thereby demonstrating creativity and adaptability to new situations.
Example: Humans can manipulate linguistic resources to produce novel expressions in response to new ideas or circumstances. This indicates that language is creative, open-ended, and flexible.
3. Discreteness of Language
Definition: Human language consists of distinct phonemes, where changing a single phoneme can alter the meaning of a word.
Example: Changing /m/ to /t/ in the word "tap" produces a different word "map," illustrating distinct phonemes.
Additional Examples: Minimal pairs in English such as vat, fat, mat, sat, cat, etc.
4. Arbitrariness of Language
Definition: Illustrates the illogical relationship between linguistic forms and their meanings or referents; there is no natural connection between the word and what it signifies.
Example: The word "pen" has no intrinsic relationship to the object it represents; any arbitrary word could describe that object across different languages.
Onomatopoeic Words: Certain linguistic forms mimic sounds produced by characteristics of objects or activities, e.g., bangs, crashes, meows, etc.
Contrast with Animal Signals: Most animal communication signals exhibit a fixed relationship between the signal and its message.
5. Cultural Transmission of Language
Definition: Language is acquired through a learner's social and cultural environment rather than inherited biologically from parents.
Example: A child born to Akan parents but raised by Spanish-speaking parents will ultimately speak Spanish due to cultural exposure.
Language is passed down generations, contrasting with animal communication, which is largely innate or instinctive.
6. Changeability of Language
Definition: Language exhibits variations in use based on different contexts and situations.
Example: The shift in meaning of words—historical changes in English word meanings reveal that language evolves, and these variations can result in language change over time.
Extremities can lead to language death when the last speaker dies, often due to sociocultural changes, such as colonization or migration.
7. Duality of Language
Definition: Language operates on two levels: the level of individual sounds and the level of meaning.
Example: The distinct sounds in words such as "stop" differ in meaning from "tops," illustrating duality.
Advantage: A limited set of phonemes generates a vast amount of language in terms of vocabulary.
Functions of Language
Language serves multiple functions beyond its primary communicative role; it plays a vital role in social interaction. Jakobson (1952) identifies six communication functions:
1. Communicative or Informative Function
Also referred to as referential function, this allows language to convey factual information.
Example: Statements, questions, commands, emotional expressions, apologies, promises.
2. Conative Function
Engages the addressee directly, illustrated through imperative and vocative usage.
Example: “Tom! Come inside and eat!” aims to direct specific attention to the listener.
3. Emotive or Expressive Function
This function emphasizes emotional expression rather than information transfer.
Example: Expressing pain with exclamations like "Ouch!" or admiration such as "What a beautiful goal!" reflects emotive function.
4. Phatic Function
Pertains to establishing social connections or solidarity, exemplified through greetings.
Example: Exchanging pleasantries as a way to connect socially.
5. Poetic or Aesthetic Function
Focuses on aesthetics and beauty within language, utilizing literary techniques to create pleasure.
Example: Use of rhythm or figurative language in poetry (e.g., “she sells sea shells at the sea shore”).
6. Metalingual Function
Used to discuss or clarify language itself.
Example: Definitions and linguistic discussions embody metalingual use, e.g., “A sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.”
7. Persuasive Function
Centers on influencing others’ actions or opinions using language as a tool for persuasion.
Example: Advertisers employing appealing language to convince audiences, such as celebrities endorsing products.
Differences between Speech and Writing
General Claims about Speech as Priority
Linguistic claims emphasize that speech is primary to writing due to historical, biological, structural, and functional reasons:
1. Historical Priority
Humans learned to communicate through spoken language before written forms emerged.
Oral traditions passed down stories and cultures prior to the development of writing.
2. Biological Priority
Human beings are innately equipped with Language Acquisition Device (LAD) facilitating language learning.
Verbal communication precedes written skills; children learn spoken language before they learn to read or write.
3. Functional Priority
Immediate feedback exists within spoken language, fostering dynamic interaction.
Speech conveys subjective information through contextual cues, while written language tends to be objective.
4. Structural Priority
Spoken language employs a limited set of sounds contrasted by writing presenting more complexity with structures like punctuation.
Grammar is learned implicitly for spoken language but requires conscious effort for literacy.
General Differences between Speech and Writing
Speech is fluid and can be corrected instantly, while writing is fixed post-creation.
Written language is often more complicated, featuring longer sentences and subordinate clauses not typically found in spoken conversations.
Similarities between Speech and Writing
Both forms have logical structures, present ideas coherently, and employ a variety of linguistic expressions and signals.