4.1-4.3
Here are simple definitions and examples for each term from the topics you've provided:
4.1 - Attribution Theory & Person Perception
Attribution
Definition: The process of explaining the causes of behavior.
Example: When someone fails a test, we might attribute their failure to lack of studying or external factors like the test being too hard.
Actor/Observer Bias
Definition: The tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors but others' actions to internal ones.
Example: If you’re late to a meeting, you blame traffic (external), but if someone else is late, you assume they’re disorganized (internal).
Internal Locus of Control
Definition: Believing that you have control over the outcomes of your actions.
Example: A student believes they got a good grade because of their own hard work.
Dispositional Attribution (internal qualities)
Definition: Attributing someone's behavior to their personality or character.
Example: Believing someone is rude because they have an unfriendly personality.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition: The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of the situation when explaining others' behavior.
Example: Thinking someone is lazy because they didn't complete a task, without considering external factors like illness or personal issues.
External Locus of Control
Definition: Believing that external factors or luck control the outcomes of your actions.
Example: A person believes they failed a test because it was unfair or the teacher didn’t teach well.
Situational Attribution (external circumstances)
Definition: Attributing behavior to external factors or circumstances.
Example: Believing someone was rude because they were stressed or having a bad day.
Self-Serving Bias
Definition: The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external ones.
Example: Taking credit for a successful project but blaming failure on poor resources.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Definition: When a belief or expectation leads to its own fulfillment.
Example: A student believes they will fail, so they don’t study, leading to failure.
Explanatory Style (Optimistic/Pessimistic)
Definition: The way we explain the causes of events; optimistic explains events in a positive way, while pessimistic attributes them to negative factors.
Example: An optimistic person might think they’ll do better next time after failing, while a pessimistic person might think they’ll always fail.
Mere Exposure Effect
Definition: The tendency to develop a preference for things simply because we are exposed to them repeatedly.
Example: You start liking a song after hearing it several times on the radio.
Social Comparison (upward/downward)
Definition: Comparing yourself to others to evaluate your own abilities or situation.
Example:
Upward: Comparing yourself to someone you think is better than you.
Downward: Comparing yourself to someone you believe is worse off.
Relative Deprivation
Definition: Feeling deprived or dissatisfied when comparing yourself to others who are better off.
Example: Feeling unhappy because you don’t have the same possessions as someone wealthier than you.
4.2 - Attitude Formation & Attitude Change
Stereotype
Definition: A generalized belief about a group of people.
Example: Believing that all elderly people are bad with technology.
Out-Group Homogeneity Bias
Definition: The tendency to see members of other groups as being more similar to each other than they really are.
Example: Assuming all people from another country share the same opinions or characteristics.
In-Group Bias
Definition: The tendency to favor members of your own group over those in other groups.
Example: Supporting your local sports team even when they play poorly, simply because they’re your team.
Just-World Phenomenon
Definition: The belief that people get what they deserve.
Example: Thinking that someone who is homeless must have done something wrong to deserve their situation.
Ethnocentrism
Definition: The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others.
Example: Believing that your country’s food is the best and dismissing foreign cuisines.
Cognitive Dissonance
Definition: The discomfort felt when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes.
Example: Feeling guilty about smoking despite knowing it’s harmful to your health.
Prejudice
Definition: A negative attitude or belief about someone based on their group membership.
Example: Disliking someone because of their race.
Implicit Attitudes
Definition: Attitudes or stereotypes that are unconscious but still influence behavior.
Example: Unconsciously associating certain races with negative traits.
Belief Perseverance
Definition: The tendency to hold onto beliefs even when confronted with evidence that contradicts them.
Example: Sticking to your belief in astrology despite scientific evidence disproving it.
Discrimination
Definition: Unfair treatment of people based on their group membership.
Example: Not hiring someone because of their gender.
Confirmation Bias
Definition: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms your beliefs.
Example: Only reading news articles that support your political views.
4.3 - Psychology of Social Situations
Social Norms (normative & informational)
Definition: Expectations about how people should behave in a society.
Normative: Pressure to fit in with others.
Informational: Conforming because you believe others know better.
Example: Normative: Dressing a certain way at work.
Informational: Following a crowd because you believe they know where the good food is.
Foot-in-the-Door
Definition: The tactic of starting with a small request to make it easier to ask for a larger one later.
Example: Asking for a small favor, then later requesting something bigger.
Multiculturalism
Definition: The appreciation and promotion of cultural diversity within a society.
Example: A country encouraging the celebration of different cultural festivals.
Social Influence Theory
Definition: The study of how people’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are shaped by others.
Example: Someone starts wearing a new fashion trend after seeing their friends wear it.
Door-in-the-Face
Definition: The technique of making a large request first, followed by a smaller request.
Example: Asking for a $100 donation, then following up with a request for $10.
Group Polarization
Definition: The tendency for group discussion to make individuals' opinions more extreme.
Example: A group of people who already agree on an issue becoming more passionate after discussing it.
Persuasion
Definition: The process of influencing someone’s attitudes or behavior.
Example: Convincing a friend to buy a product by highlighting its benefits.
Conformity
Definition: Adjusting one’s behavior to align with the group.
Example: Agreeing with a group decision even if you don't personally believe it.
Groupthink
Definition: When group members suppress dissenting opinions to maintain harmony and avoid conflict.
Example: A team agreeing on a plan that they know is flawed to avoid conflict.
Central Route Persuasion
Definition: Persuasion that occurs through logical reasoning and evidence.
Example: Using facts and data to persuade someone to adopt a viewpoint.
Obedience
Definition: Following the instructions or orders of an authority figure.
Example: Following a teacher’s instructions during a lesson.
Diffusion of Responsibility
Definition: The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible when others are present.
Example: Not helping someone in distress because you assume others will help.
Peripheral Route Persuasion
Definition: Persuasion that occurs through superficial cues, such as attractiveness or charisma.
Example: Being persuaded to buy a product because of an attractive celebrity endorsement.
Individualism
Definition: The belief in the importance of personal independence and self-reliance.
Example: A person prioritizes personal goals over group goals.
Social Loafing
Definition: The tendency to exert less effort in a group than when working alone.
Example: Slacking off during a group project because others are doing the work.
Social Facilitation
Definition: The tendency to perform better on simple tasks when others are present.
Example: Running faster in a race when others are watching.
Collectivism
Definition: The belief in prioritizing the group’s needs over individual needs.
Example: Putting the group’s interests above personal desires in a team project.
Deindividuation
Definition: The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster anonymity.
Example: People acting aggressively in a large crowd during a protest.
False Consensus Effect
Definition: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs or behaviors.
Example: Assuming everyone in your class thinks the same way about a controversial topic.
Superordinate Goals
Definition: Shared goals that override differences between groups and promote cooperation.
Example: Two rival groups working together to clean up a local park.
Social Trap
Definition: A situation where individuals or groups act in their own self-interest, leading to a negative outcome for everyone.
Example: Overfishing leading to depletion of fish stocks.
Altruism
Definition: Selfless concern for the well-being of others.
Example: Donating money to charity without expecting anything in return.
Social Reciprocity Norm
Definition: The expectation that people will return favors or kindness.
Example: Helping someone move because they helped you in the past.
Bystander Effect
Definition: The phenomenon where people are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.
Example: Witnessing an accident but not helping because you assume someone else will.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Definition: A theory explaining how attitudes are changed through central or peripheral routes.
Example: A person deeply processing a message about environmental conservation (central) vs. being persuaded by a catchy advertisement (peripheral).
Social Responsibility Norm
Definition: The expectation that individuals will help others who are in need.
Example: Helping someone who has fallen on the sidewalk.
Halo Effect
Definition: The tendency to let one positive trait influence our overall judgment of someone.
Example: Assuming someone is intelligent because they are attractive.
Industrial Organizational Psychologists
Definition: Psychologists who apply psychological principles to workplace environments to improve productivity and employee well-being.
Example: A psychologist designing training programs to improve employee performance.