Anatomy Quiz Chapter 3.2
Cortisol:
main function is to induce physiological response during stress
produced by adrenal glands
involved in: Metabolism/blood sugar levels, Lowering inflammation, Memory formation, Salt and water balance, Blood pressure, Fetal development
Stress: emotional pressure experienced by a living thing
Cortisol and stress response:
Cortisol released under stressful events
Short-term, helping body protect itself against potential harm
increase metabolism (quicker access to energy), and inhibit inflammation, aids in the fight-or-flight response (sympathetic system)
Chronic stress: overproduction of cortisol, stress levels remain too high for too long
Immune desensitization: chronic high levels of cortisol will eventually lead to receptors in the nervous system to become resistant, leasing to less sensitivity to cortisol and inflammation (pain, depression, anxiety, skin rashes, hypertension, headaches, and a weakened immune system)
Biological Sex: Based on sex chromosomes (XX vs XY binary), genes, hormones, primary reproductive organs (ovaries vs testes, external genitalia)...affects secondary reproductive traits (hair production, breast development, etc)
Sex Assigned at Birth: Biological sex assignment at birth (based on chromosome or external genitalia)
Gender: Socially constructed identity based on norms, behaviors, and roles associated with ‘female’ and ‘male’ sexes
Sexuality: Identity based on who one is sexually attracted to or engages with sexually; often defined relative to one’s gender identity
Addressing disparities for sexual and gender minorities: Educating healthcare providers on LGBTQ+ health needs, reducing bias, and fostering inclusive environments, Collecting and analyzing data on sexual orientation and gender identity to identify disparities and target interventions, Expanding availability of gender-affirming care and LGBTQ+ health services, Promoting understanding and reducing stigm
STIs and prevention: Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, HPV, HIV, Hepatitis, Vaccines (HPV/Hepatitis), external/internal condoms, PrEP for HIV; PEP for bacterial STIs, communication
Covid-19 impact on STI testing/healthcare: Lockdowns decreased access to healthcare, Overrun healthcare staff had to prioritize patients by severity of disease; many put on long waiting lists, Fear of covid infection spread led to people less likely to report symptoms or get tested
Pregnancy: Fertilization-egg and sperm fuse (in Uterine tube), Pregnancy-fertilized egg implants in uterine wall
Sperm & the Immune System: Sperm is non-self if it enters someone else’s body, the immune system acts to destroy it, Primarily Innate response, have to make it past the immune response to achieve fertilization with an egg, mainly accomplished by large numbers in ejaculation (millions)
Fertilized eggs & Immune System: Fertilized egg contains all the instructions for growth of a fetus, as well as the instructions to grow a placenta
Placenta: very invasive organ that will grow anywhere it can attach itself to (not just inside a uterus). It produces hormones needed to grow a fetus
The immune system must be strategically suppressed by the placenta in order to keep from being attacked (prevent from recognizing non-self)
ectopic pregnancy: A pregnancy that can't be carried to term because the fertilized egg grows outside the uterus, life threatening, could happen in ANY body. NO UTERUS REQUIRED, fetus cannot survive due to the incorrect blood supply and space to safely complete development
Misscarriage: the result of a chromosomal abnormality that the fetus can’t survive (60%) or an underlying medical condition; immune system may recognize chromosomal abnormalities and induce the miscarriage, immune suppression can be disrupted, leading to miscarriage (recognizing fetus as non-self)
Blood: living tissue that
carries O2 and nutrients to all parts of the body
carries CO2 and other waste products back to the lungs, kidneys and liver for disposal
It also fights against infection and helps heal wounds
Plasma: the yellowish liquid portion of blood that contains:
electrolytes
nutrients
vitamins
hormones
clotting factors
proteins such as antibodies to fight infection
Platelets (Thrombocytes): The clotting factors that are carried in the plasma, they clot together in a process called coagulation to seal a wound and prevent a loss of blood.
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes): most abundant cells in our blood; are produced in the bone marrow and contain a protein called hemoglobin that carries oxygen to our cells.
White blood cells (Leukocytes): part of the immune system and destroy infectious agents called pathogens.
How blood type is determined: A and B antigens on red blood cells, (A, B, AB, O), determined by genotype/phenotype
Antigens: a protein-carbohydrate complex on the surface of a cell, but they have different shapes
individual lacking one or both of these antigens will have serum antibodies to the missing antigen(s)
So, if you have type A blood, you will have B-antibodies so your body will destroy a foreign blood type that has B antigens on it.
Genotype: A genotype is the actual genetic composition or makeup of an organism.
Phenotype: The trait that is shown due to the coding in the genotype is called the phenotype. The phenotype is the actual physical features shown by the organism.
Alleles determining antigen: Alleles (different forms of a gene) code for protein enzymes.
The Red Blood cell membrane contains proteins and lipids in it that carbohydrates can be attached to.
The protein enzyme that is made will determine how the membrane protein/lipid will get modified on the cell surface — by attaching a sequence of carbohydrates to the membrane protein/lipid.
Agglutination: clumping together of the antigens and antibodies
When red blood cells with a specific antigen (ex: A) are mixed with blood containing the antibody for that antigens (ex: B) then the antibodies attach to the blood cells and cause them to clump together.
This can lead to death during a transfusion if a type of blood is given that is not compatible
Rh factor: certain blood protein that’s found in some people, If your blood does contain the protein, your blood is said to be Rh positive (Rh+), If your blood does not contain the protein, your blood is said to be Rh negative (Rh-)
Whether or not a blood type is negative or positive is determined by presence of a different antigen (D-antigen)
If you have the antigen your blood type is considered positive
If you don’t have the antigen your blood type is negative, but you will have the D-antibodies
This means people with negative blood cannot receive blood from people with positive blood
Rh incompatibility: when there is incompatibility between the blood type of mother and child, Usually happens when father is Rh+, mother is Rh- and child is Rh+, Miscarriages possible
Blood Transfusions: procedure in which blood is given to a patient through an intravenous line in one of the blood vessels, Blood transfusions are done to replace blood lost during surgery or a serious injury, A transfusion also may be done if a person’s body can't make blood properly because of an illness.
Factors that affect organ donations:
both BLOOD TYPES and TISSUE TYPES need to be compatible
human leukocyte antigen - HLA testing (6 antigens recognized by white blood cells on tissue types; 6 possible antigen matches; converts to “match points”)
Age of donor/organ and size (affects longevity of organ function), HLA match points
UNOS Algorithm: Organs are matched using a computer program according to objective criteria like Blood type, tissue type, size of organ, medical urgency of the patient, time on the waiting list, distance between donor and recipient
Ethnicity, gender, religion, and financial status are NOT part of the system (though ethnicity may have links with compatibility—there is a shortage of organs for minority recipients)
Organs that can be donated: kidneys, heart, lungs, liver, pancreas, and intestines
Tissues that can be donated: cornea, skin, heart valves, bone, veins, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments
Immunity after organ transplant: The immune system will notice non-self antigens on the donated organ tissue, requires immunosuppressive medications/strict diet/behavioral changes to prevent rejection, Stem cells can be used to avoid immunosuppression and have donor tissue appear as self
Consequence of race-based eGFR estimation: Black patients don’t receive the care they need soon enough to prevent any further problems. Removing the race factor can help in earlier detection of decreased kidney function.
Hepatitis and the organ it affects:
Attacks the liver; can lead to cirrhosis, liver cancer. There is hepatitis A (spread through contaminated food, drink, feces), B and C (Spread by body fluids, infected needles), both Hep A and B have vaccines not C.
Malaria: Anopheles (vector), Causes headache, anemia, jaundice, and fever due to lost Red Blood Cells, also causes severe complications (death)
West Nile: Culex (vector), 8/10 are asymptomatic, Serious symptoms include disorientation, high fever, encephalitis (swelling of brain)
Zika: Aedes aegypti (vector) Headache, rash, linked to microcephaly infants, and muscle and joint pain
Dengue: Aedes aegypti (vector), “Breakbone fever”, Eye pain (behind), high fever, sometimes gum or nose bleeding, Hemorrhagic, fever reduced by vomiting, difficulty breathing, 24 to 48 of leaky blood vessels, severe pain in the abdominal
Chikungunya: Aedes aegypti or aedes albopictus (vector), Fever and joint pain (can last months/years), potential rash, extremely painful
Features of integrated mosquito management: Genetically modified mosquitoes. educating communities on prevention, access to sanitation
climate change impact on mosquito-vector diseases:
global warming, which can lead to heavy rainfall, which provides more breeding areas where mosquitoes can reproduce and spread.
longer time periods of warmer temperature which allows for mosquitoes to live longer
warmer temperatures allow the mosquito eggs to incubate faster, so more mosquitos are produced and continue to reproduce
Neurotoxins: target the nervous system, prevent neurons in the brain from transmitting signals to muscles; paralysis
Hemotoxins: target blood/circulatory system
Red blood cells burst, clotting, severely lower blood pressure, damage other tissues; hypoxia
Mycotoxins: target muscular system, tissue death in muscles and prevent muscle contraction; necrosis
Cytotoxins: act on individual cells, often non-specific
Bacterial Toxins:
botulinum toxin A (Clostridium botulinum)
tetanus toxin A (Clostridium tetani)
diphtheria toxin (Corynebacterium diphtheriae)
Anthrax toxin (Bacillus anthracis)
Toxic Rice Syndrome (Bacillus cereus)
Neurotoxin-necrosis mechanism: inhibits the firing of action potentials in neurons, prevents the nervous system from carrying messages and thus muscles from contracting in response to nervous stimulation
Myotoxin-necrosis mechanism: Muscle cells are damaged by myotoxin peptides binding to membrane receptors, inducing a calcium influx that leads to the breakdown of the cell membrane. The cells’ contents spill out. This action leads to cell death, making the prey paralyzed as well as ‘liquefying’ the tissues for easy digestion
Venom uses: Botox - The global botox market was valued at $8.14 billion in 2023 (increase of $2 billion from 2022), Pain treatment - Apitox (from bees), Repair damaged tissues - leeches, many others
Antivenom production: host animal is injected with increasing amounts of venom (often a horse)
immune response → plasma cells produce antibodies
antibodies extracted, processed, and purified