Study Guide for the Academic Proficiency Test (PSA) - Law Career

Institutional Framework and Purpose of the Official PSA Guide

The Faculty of Law and Political Sciences at the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA) presents the Official Guide of Questions and Answers for the Academic Proficiency Test (PSA) as a fundamental academic instrument. This guide is designed to provide orientation to applicants, ensuring transparency in the admission process and promoting equal opportunities for entering university-level legal training. It serves as an official public bank of criteria, allowing for an objective evaluation based on specific knowledge selected by specialized faculty. The guide covers a variety of sectors, including general, constitutional, historical, and philosophical knowledge essential for beginning professional legal studies. The institution reaffirms its commitment to forming critical professionals dedicated to justice, the rule of law, human rights, and democratic values within society.

Study Bibliography and Basic Texts

The preparation for the PSA is based on specific, institutionally selected bibliography. For the area of Universal and Bolivian History, the official texts are Historical Universal Contemporánea by Lilia Palos Gómez ($2015$) and Historia de Bolivia by Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert ($11^{\text{th}}$ edition, $2019$). Legal studies are based on the Political Constitution of the State of the Plurinational State of Bolivia, published in the Official Gazette in $2009$. Philosophical concepts are studied through Lecciones Preliminares de Filosofía by Manuel García Morente (Editorial Losada). These materials represent the foundational academic reference for the question bank and should be reviewed to deepen conceptual understanding beyond the guide's summaries.

General Considerations and Selection Rules

The question bank contained within the guide constitutes the entirety of the Official Question Bank for the current academic year. Questions for the actual admission exam are selected through institutional procedures that guarantee impartiality and reliability under the direction of the Faculty Admission Office. Each question in the process has a unique correct answer and is valued uniformly. The university’s current regulations determine the approval criteria. By enrolling in the PSA, applicants acknowledge and accept all procedures and conditions established in this document. Success depends on personal effort, study discipline, and a thorough understanding of the content rather than mere memorization of answers.

History of Bolivia: Prehispanic Period and Regional Cultures

Human presence in the Americas is estimated to be over $40,000$ years old, with migration routes crossing the Bering Strait from Asia to Alaska. Early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, but the development of agriculture allowed for the establishment of stable settlements. In Bolivia, the Viscachani culture is the most significant exponent of the Lithic period, dating to approximately $10,000\,\text{B.C.}$. The Altiplano region featured a vast lake basin; the ancient Lake Ballivián was $5\,\text{meters}$ higher than present-day levels. Notable megatheria, such as the $Mylodon$ (giant sloth), coexisted with these early humans. Around $2,500\,\text{B.C.}$, cultures like Wankarani and Chiripa emerged. Wankarani, located in La Paz and Oruro, focused on camelid herding and potato ($papa$) cultivation in circular dwellings. Chiripa, on the Taraco peninsula, built large artificial mounds and utilized blowers to smelt copper. Archaeology uses methods like Carbon $14$ to establish the absolute chronology of these sites.

The Rise and Fall of Tiahuanaco and the Aymara Señoríos

Tiahuanaco evolved through three major periods: Formative, Urban, and Expansive. During its peak, it was a stratified society ruled by priests and warriors with a population of approximately $20,000$ inhabitants. They developed advanced agricultural systems called $Suka-kollus$ (camellones) to manage rainwater. Its urbanism showcased the dual division of $Akapana$ and $Puma\text{-}punku$, representing the Andean concepts of $Arriba$ and $Urin$. They achieved military superiority through the use of bronze. A severe drought between the years $1250$ and $1310\,\text{d.C.}$ led to the culture's collapse. Subsequently, the Altiplano split into ethnic señoríos such as the Collas, who utilized the principle of verticality to control diverse ecological tiers. Notable groups included the Charcas, Carangas (who built with adobe), and the Callahuayas, famous for their medicinal knowledge. The Aymara culture is marked by $Chullpas$, which are tower-shaped tombs.

The Inca Empire: Organization and Expansion

The Inca expansion began around the $12^{\text{th}}$ century, with legends placing the birth of Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo on the Island of the Sun in Lake Titicaca. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui was the ruler who transformed the empire into a historical power, conquering the Collao and restructuring the capital, Cuzco. The empire, known as the Tahuantinsuyo, was divided into $Hanan$ (Chinchaysuyo) and $Hurin$ (Collasuyo). The economy was based on maize and potatoes, the latter often preserved as $chuño$. Religious life was polytheistic, centering on Viracocha and the Sun deity. Ceremonies like $Capac\,Cocha$ involved human sacrifices of children. The Incas used $Quipus$ (knotted strings) for accounting and historical records. Their architecture features polygonal masonry, while their clothing included the $Uncu$ (decorated tunic). The empire eventually faced internal civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar just before the Spanish arrival.

Discovery of the New World and the Spanish Conquest

The Spanish arrival in $1492$ coincided with the fall of Granada and the unification of Spain. Driven by the search for riches and evangelization, Christopher Columbus secured the support of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile. After leaving the port of Palos with three caravels—including the Santa María—land was first sighted on October $12$, $1492$, by Rodrigo de Triana. Spanish claims were legitimized by Pope Alexander VI's Bula $Inter\,Coetera$ and the Treaty of Tordesillas ($1494$), which set a demarcation line $370\,\text{leguas}$ west of Cape Verde. Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs in $1521$, providing a model for Francisco Pizarro. Pizarro arrived in Cajamarca on November $15$, $1532$, capturing Atahualpa. Despite paying a ransom of $6,087\,\text{kilos}$ of fine gold, Atahualpa was executed in $1533$ using the garrote. The Viceroyalty of Peru was established in $1543$, and the city of La Paz was founded in $1548$ by Alonso de Mendoza to commemorate the end of civil wars between the conquerors.

Colonial Administration and the Potosí Silver Boom

The discovery of silver in the Cerro Rico of Potosí in $1545$ by the indigenous yanacona Diego Huallpa transformed the Spanish Empire. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo ($1569\text{--}1581$) implemented significant reforms, including the reorganization of the population into $Reducciones$ and the institutionalization of the $Mita$ (forced labor system) where communities provided labor every $7$ years. He introduced the mercury ($azogue$) amalgamation process to purify silver. Potosí grew to have $16,000$ houses and $594$ streets by the end of the $16^{\text{th}}$ century. Other foundations included the Villa de Oropesa (Cochabamba) in $1574$ and Tarija the same year. The Audiencia of Charcas was created on September $18$, $1559$, as the highest administrative and judicial authority in the region. Resistance movements like the $Taqui\,Oncoy$ sought to restore ancient Andean cults against the colonial order.

Contemporary Universal History: Imperialism and Major Conflicts

Imperialism, the process where powerful nations control other territories, peaked between $1870$ and $1914$, led by England, France, and Russia. This period saw the formation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). The first World War ($1914\text{--}1918$) was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Following the war, the League of Nations was founded in $1919$, and Woodrow Wilson proposed his $14$ points for peace. In Russia, the Bolshevik Revolution of October $1917$ led by Lenin established the USSR, which later fell under the iron rule of Joseph Stalin. The economic crisis of $1929$ (The Great Depression) was caused by speculation and insolvent credit. World War II ($1939\text{--}1945$) resulted in approximately $57\,\text{million}$ deaths and led to the creation of the United Nations (UN) in $1945$, with its headquarters in New York.

The Cold War, Globalization, and Modern Geopolitics

The Cold War era was defined by the rivalry between the United States and the USSR, marked by the Truman Doctrine and NATO ($1949$). Key events included the Korean War (divided at the $38^{\text{th}}$ parallel), the Cuban Revolution ($1959$), and the Vietnam War. The Berlin Wall fell in $1989$, and the USSR collapsed in $1991$. Modern globalization links world inhabitants through decisions made by transnational corporations and neoliberal policies. In Asia, Japan became an economic power using the Toyotism system developed by Taiichi Ohno, based on "five zeros" (zero inventory/delays/paper/defects/breakdowns). The $20^{\text{th}}$ century also saw the rise of the "Asian Tigers" and the BRIC block. Conflicts in the Middle East often center on oil, such as the Gulf War ($1990\text{--}1991$) where Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, invaded Kuwait, leading to the "Desert Storm" operation led by a U.S. coalition.

Political Constitution of the State (CPE): Principles and Rights

Bolivia is defined as a Unitary Social State of Law Plurinational Community, which is decentralized and autonomous. Sovereignty resides in the people and is exercised directly, delegately, or through community participation. The state honors ethical principles such as $ama\,qhilla$ (don't be lazy), $ama\,llulla$ (don't lie), and $ama\,suwa$ (don't steal). Rights in the CPE are inviolable, universal, interdependent, and progressive. Fundamental human rights include access to water and sanitation. Indigenous nations are recognized based on their cultural identity and ancestral institutions. Education is a supreme function of the state and is mandatory until the baccalaureate level. All citizens aged $18$ or older have the right to vote. The state is independent of religion and recognizes the $wiphala$ as a national symbol. The maximum prison sentence is set at $30\,\text{years}$ without the right to a pardon.

Organs of Power and Constitutional Actions

The Bolivian state is organized into four branches: Legislative, Executive, Judicial, and Electoral. The Legislative branch consists of the Chamber of Deputies ($130$ members) and the Senate ($36$ members). The Executive is composed of the President, Vice President, and Ministers; the presidential mandate is $5\,\text{years}$ with one possible re-election. The Judicial branch includes the Supreme Court of Justice and the Agro-environmental Court. Protection of the Constitution is carried out through the Plurinational Constitutional Tribunal. Key constitutional actions include the Action of Liberty (protecting life and liberty, with a hearing within $24\,\text{hours}$), the Amparo Constitutional (filed within $6\,\text{months}$ of a violation), the Preservation of Privacy, and the Popular Action (protecting collective rights like the environment).

Preliminary Lessons of Philosophy: Definitions and Methods

Philosophy is etymologically derived from the Greek $philo$ (love) and $sophia$ (wisdom). Manuel García Morente emphasizes that philosophy must be "lived" ($Erlebnis$) to be understood. Historically, it evolved from the totality of human knowledge in Aristotle's time into specific sciences that branched off starting in the $17^{\text{th}}$ century. Philosophical methods include Socrates' Mayeutics, Plato's Dialectic (intuition and critical effort), Aristotle's Logic, and Descartes' Methodical Doubt. The two main branches are Ontology (theory of being) and Gnoseology (theory of knowledge). Plato distinguished between $doxa$ (opinion) and $episteme$ (certain science). Immanuel Kant’s "Idealism" marked a turning point, focusing on synthetic a priori judgments, the distinction between phenomena (what we perceive) and noumena (the thing in itself), and the twelve categories of the understanding.

Major Philosophers and Systems of Thought

Gottfried Leibniz proposed the theory of Monads and a world viewed through "Optimism" (the best of all possible worlds). David Hume argued that the habit or custom of associating ideas is the only justification for truth. Aristotle defined truth as the correspondence between the mind and the thing itself, a pillar of Realism. Starting in the $19^{\text{th}}$ century, Positivism (Auguste Comte) sought to apply natural science methods to all knowledge. In the realm of values, Hegel’s formula stated that "everything rational is real and everything real is rational." García Morente describes life as "being in the world," where humans encounter three types of objects: things, ideal objects (like mathematical numbers which are timeless), and values. Practical reason, according to Kant, refers to the moral conscience and the categorical imperative: acting in a way that your actions could become a universal law.