study of human development

Human Development

• Definition and Scope

  • A multidisciplinary science, integrating various fields of study.

  • Focuses on theories and research studies that examine:

  • How and why individuals change throughout their lives.

  • How individuals remain constant over time.

  • The uniqueness and similarities among individuals.

Competing Theories About Development

• Nature versus Nurture

  • Explores the degree to which genetic (hereditary) influences (nature) and experiential (environmental) influences (nurture) shape an individual's personality and behaviors.

• Continuity versus Discontinuity

  • Investigates whether development is marked by a smooth progression (continuity) or by abrupt shifts (discontinuity) across the lifespan.

• Universal versus Context-specific Development

  • Looks at whether there is a singular path of development or multiple paths depending on context.

Biopsychosocial Model of Development

• Components of the Model:

  • Biological Forces:

  • Involves genetic factors and health-related aspects.

  • Psychological Forces:

  • Encompasses cognitive, perceptual, emotional, and personality factors.

  • Sociocultural Forces:

  • Includes societal, cultural, ethnic, and interpersonal influences.

  • Life-cycle Forces:

  • Focuses on how identical events affect different age groups differently.

Developmental Theories

• Definition of Theory:

  • An organized set of ideas aiming to explain development.

  • Essential for predicting behavior, where predictions lead to research that either supports or clarifies the theory.

• Theory Categories:

  • Psychodynamic Approach:

  • Focuses on psychological, social, and life-cycle forces, often associated with discontinuous (staged) growth.

  • Learning Approach:

  • Concentrates on continuity and the impact of environmental forces.

  • Cognitive Approach:

  • Investigates how biological or cultural forces influence cognitive development.

  • Ecological and Systems Approach:

  • Examines continuity and social influences across different contexts.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

• Example of Young Adulthood (20s and 30s):

  • Central conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation.

  • Goal of Intimacy: Establishment of close relationships (both romantic and platonic) defined by honesty, closeness, and love.

  • Successful intimacy leads to:

  • Fulfilling relationships.

  • Support from social networks.

  • Failure to achieve intimacy can result in withdrawal, depression, and adverse health outcomes.

Life-Span Perspective Theories

• Acknowledges that:

  • Multiple factors influence development; no single factor can fully explain it.

  • Multidirectionality:

  • Growth and decline can occur concurrently at each developmental stage.

  • Plasticity:

  • Indicates that the capacity to learn and improve is malleable and not fixed.

  • Multiple Causation:

  • Recognizes that various life forces (biological, psychological, sociocultural) exert influence on an individual.

Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC)

• Defines choices that guide and regulate development and aging, acting as an adaptation process to maximize gains while minimizing losses:

  • Elective Selection:

  • Involves reducing involvement in one goal to concentrate on another.

  • Loss-based Selection:

  • Involves reducing involvement due to diminished resources or abilities.

  • Compensation:

  • Seeking alternative ways to achieve goals when faced with limitations.

Life-course Perspective

• Examines how different generations experience and adapt to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces across their lifespan:

  • Highlights the interaction of personal life events with historical contexts.

  • Shows how individual issues relate to family dynamics.

  • Demonstrates that earlier life events and the historical period influence subsequent experiences.

Conducting Developmental Research

• Utilizes various methodologies based on the nature and context of the research questions, including:

  • Systematic Observation:

  • Includes two types:

    • Naturalistic Observation:

    • Involves observing subjects in real-life situations.

    • Structured Observation:

    • Researchers create settings to elicit specific behaviors of interest.

  • Behavioral Sampling with Tasks:

  • Example: Using photographs to measure emotion recognition accuracy.

  • Self-Reports:

  • Measures constructs like self-esteem through questionnaires.

  • Physiological Measures:

  • Example: Assessing interest using pupil dilation.

Assessment Tools

• Criteria for Assessments:

  • Standardized:

  • To establish common administration, scoring, and interpretation steps.

  • Reliable:

  • Should yield consistent results across similar situations.

  • Valid:

  • Must accurately measure the intended construct.

• Reliability and Validity Matrix:

  • Reliable but not valid.

  • Valid but not reliable.

  • Both reliable and valid.

Correlational Method

• Destined to discover relationships between two variables:

  • Variable:

  • An entity that can vary, with different levels or values.

  • Assesses covariation among naturally occurring variables.

  • Questions asked in correlational research:

  • Can the values of one variable predict the values of another?

  • The relationship is quantified in terms of direction and strength.

Experimental Design

• Three Requirements:

  • Independent Variable:

  • The variable that is intentionally manipulated by the researcher.

  • Dependent Variable:

  • The variable that is measured to see if it is affected by the independent variable.

  • Random Assignment:

  • Ensures equal likelihood of participants being assigned to various groups.

  • Example: A coin flip to determine assignment to drug dosage groups.

  • Creates comparable groups before any manipulation occurs.

  • Note: Random assignment is different from random selection.