The Great War: The World in Upheaval
The Great War: The World in Upheaval
Satirical Map of Europe in 1914
Dissident cartoonist Walter Trier created a satirical map of Europe in 1914, contrasting with the chauvinistic press of the time.
The map's message aimed to critique the nationalistic fervor fueling the competing national publics.
John Singer Sargent's "Gassed"
John Singer Sargent's painting "Gassed" (1918-1919) depicts the horrors of war. It located in the Imperial War Museum, London.
The Drift Towards War
Nationalism:
The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars spread nationalism throughout Europe.
Self-determination is inherent in nationalism: people with the same ethnic origins, language, and political ideals have the right to form sovereign states.
Colonial powers often ignored this concept.
Two Sides to Nationalism
Unifying Force:
United France, Britain, and Germany behind their governments, giving them strength.
Divisive Force:
Russia, Ottoman, and Austria-Hungarian Empires contained numerous ethnic and religious minorities.
Governments could not rely on full support from minorities because they were oppressed.
Example: Nationalist aspirations of Slavic peoples in Austria-Hungary (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes).
National Rivalries
Territorial Disputes:
French loss of Alsace-Lorraine region to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871.
Great Britain and Germany Rivalry:
Economic: England lost industrial output to Germany by 1914.
Military: Expensive naval race to control trade routes and protect merchant shipping.
Maintaining an army "ready for war".
Both built super battleships: dreadnoughts.
Frederic Passy's Warning
Frederic Passy, a peace activist and Nobel Peace Prize winner (1895), warned about the impending danger of war.
He noted that while everyone claimed to desire peace, the world was on the brink of a major conflict due to unforeseen incidents or accidents.
Passy's quote: "The entire able-bodied population are preparing to massacre one another…yet the whole world feels that it only requires some unforeseen incident…to blow all Europe sky-high."
Colonial Disputes
European nations continuously clashed in corners of the globe.
Germany unified in 1871 and came late to the colonial race.
Germans resented that Britain and France had already "carved up the world."
Balkan Wars (1912-13) strained relations as they fought for possession of European territories of the Ottoman Empire.
Public Opinion
Citizens were strongly patriotic with an intense desire to "come in first."
Cheap, mass-produced newspapers, pamphlets, and books fueled national arrogance and aggressive patriotism.
Picasso’s "Gunner" showed France's Napoleon glory.
The Tangled Alliance System
Otto von Bismarck:
The German "blood and iron" chancellor (1871) insisted Germany was a "satisfied" power and wanted to avoid war.
Feared war on two fronts so formed alliances.
Kaiser Wilhelm II:
Came to the throne at 29.
Ambitious and impetuous.
Forced Bismarck to resign.
Built up the military and navy to rival Britain.
Understandings and Alliances
Triple Alliance (Central Powers):
Germany, Austria-Hungary.
Originally formed out of fear of France/Russia.
Italy joined later due to fear of France but switched to Allied Powers in 1915 because promised "spoils of war."
Triple Entente (Allied Powers):
France and Britain (1904).
Russia added in 1907.
Did not bind them to fight with each other but ensured they would not fight against each other.
Signed a military pact in 1914, agreeing to support each other in a crisis.
The Balkans: “Powder Keg” of Europe
The Ottoman Empire was in decline in the late 19th century, known as the "Sick Man of Europe."
Many territories broke away on the peninsula, e.g., Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia.
Serbia wanted to unite the Slavs on the Peninsula.
Austria-Hungary was against it for fear it would stir rebellion among its Slavic population.
In 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which had a large Slavic population, creating hostilities.
The Guns of August
June 28, 1914: Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, were assassinated by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip.
July 28: Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
Russia mobilized troops to defend Serbia as an ally on the borders of Austria and Germany.
Aug. 1: Germany declared war on Russia and France, invading Belgium to reach France.
Aug. 4: To protect Belgium’s neutrality, Britain declared war on Germany.
Reactions to the Outbreak of War
German troops marched "To Paris."
French troops aimed to "Send me the Kaiser’s moustache."
German sociologist Max Weber said, “This war, with all its ghastliness, is nevertheless grand and wonderful. It is worth experiencing.”
Sir Edward Grey, British foreign minister in late summer 1914, stated, “The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”
When the war began, few imagined defeat, and no one foresaw the universal loss.
Powers Plan for War
Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables.
France’s Plan XVII: Focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks on the German border, keeping a large number of troops at their border because they were heavily industrialized with rail.
Germany’s Schlieffen Plan: Try to avoid a two-front war.
Swift attack on France, then defensive attack on Russia.
Speed was vital, so they went through Belgium to get to France.
Belgium was neutral and not part of any “alliance."
Battle of the Marne
Germans reached the outskirts of Paris by September 1914.
Allies regrouped and attacked at the valley of the Marne River.
Every soldier was taken to the front, including 600 taxis from Paris.
After 4 days, Germans retreated.
The Schlieffen Plan was ruined.
Germany was forced to fight the two-front war due to Russian troops invading from the east.
Trench Warfare
Opposing troops prepared their defenses.
Machine guns were the most potent weapon, great for defense, but useless for offense due to weight and setup time.
Soldiers dug trenches to escape streams of bullets, all connected without gaps, with communication trenches dug in the back.
"No man’s land" was littered with the dead.
No Man’s Land
Strewn with shell craters, cadavers, and body parts.
Trenches were wet, cold, waist-deep in mud, with lice and corpse-fed rats.
Battle of Verdun
French rallying cry, "They shall not pass."
Over a half-million French and German soldiers perished in the Battle of Verdun alone.
Many dead were never recovered or identified.
Stalemate (1914-1917)
By the end of August 1914, Germany had overrun Belgium and swept into France.
By Sept. 3, Germans were on the edge of Paris.
The First Battle of the Marne in 1914 was one of the most important battles of WWI.
Allies pushed the Germans back, proving that Germany's quick victory was no longer possible.
It turned into a long, bloody stalemate and trench warfare.
The deadlocked region running from the North Sea to Switzerland became known as the Western Front.
The Christmas Truce
The 1914 Christmas Truce: when men feast together.
Western Front
A "terrain of death."
Nearly 500 miles from the North Sea to the Swiss border.
Battles of WWI: The Bloodletting
1916 saw the bloodiest battles.
Battle of Verdun:
Germans attacked French forts.
Germans lost 281,000 and caused 315,000 French casualties.
Fewer than 160,000 identifiable bodies were recovered.
Germans advanced 4 miles.
Battle of the Somme River:
In July, British attacked Germans in the valley of the Somme River.
Britain had 420,000 casualties (60,000 on the 1st day).
Germans lost 450,000.
French had 200,000 casualties.
British gained 5 miles.
Eastern Front
Battlefield along the German and Russian border.
Russians and Serbs vs. Germans and Austro-Hungarians.
Russian Struggles
By 1916, Russia’s war effort was near collapse.
The Russian army was continually short on food, guns, ammunition, clothes, boots, and blankets.
Cut off from Allied supply shipments due to German control of the Baltic Sea.
Russian asset: Numbers.
Huge numbers of battlefield losses, but they could still replace them with their large population.
Held up the Germans.
New Weapons of War
Machine guns
Poison gas
Worn masks for protection.
Introduced by Germans but used by both sides.
Caused blindness, severe blisters, death by choking.
Tank
An armored combat vehicle that moved on chain tracks.
Introduced in the Battle of the Somme 1916.
Slow, clumsy but eventually improved and aided Allies.
New Weapons: Poison Gas
The deployment of poison gas represented a technological development of horrific dimension that was designed to break the stalemate of trench warfare by killing, on a massive scale, soldiers otherwise difficult to reach.
More Weapons
Airplane:
First time used in combat.
Used for photos of enemy lines.
Both sides began using them to drop bombs.
Guns were attached, and pilots fought each other in the air.
Submarine:
Introduced in 1914 by Germans (U-Boats).
Germans waged “unrestricted warfare” on Allies.
Primary weapon: torpedo.
War Planes: Dogfights
Dogfights as a new type of combat resulted from the attempt of each contestant to prevent the enemy from conducting aerial reconnaissance.
The War at Sea
Britain:
Cut German overseas telegraph cables.
Blockaded the coasts of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Set out to capture or sink enemy ships at sea.
Germany:
Retaliated with a blockade against Britain.
Germans attacked every vessel they could.
British ocean liner, Lusitania: Death toll: 1,198 people, 139 of them Americans.
The US protested, and Germany ended its submarine campaign, hoping to keep the US neutral.
Homefront and War Economy
Waged total war: Devoted all resources to war.
Armies demanded more weapons, ammunition, and food.
Governments rationed food and paid higher taxes.
Germany’s draft extended to ages 16-60.
Unemployment vanished.
Thousands of Africans, Indians, and Chinese were recruited for heavy labor.
Women filled jobs vacated by men, drawn to "male" jobs.
In 1917, Britain established auxiliary units for the army, navy, and air force, and women worked as nurses, physicians, and in communications.
Women at Work
The Great War drew huge numbers of men out of the workforce at a time of great industrial need.
Women replaced them, for the first time assuming traditionally “male” jobs.
Propaganda
Governments suppressed antiwar activity.
Censored news about war.
Used propaganda or one-sided information to persuade and keep up morale.
Prosecuted traitors who criticized the nation’s war effort.
Propaganda
Posters, pamphlets, and “scientific “ studies depicted the enemy as subhuman who engaged in atrocities.
Example: In 1917, the London Times published a story claiming Germans converted human corpses into fertilizer and food.
German War Economy
German civilians paid a high price.
The British naval blockade severed overseas trade, contributing to ½ million German civilians starving.
Potato crop failure in 1916 was known as the "turnip winter."
People were forced to survive on 1,000 calories/day.
Women, children, and the elderly were hit hard.
Soldiers raided enemy lines to scavenge.
Colonies Help War Effort
During the Great War, colonial powers relied on millions of Asian and African men to fight or labor for their respective sides.
African Colonies Suffer in the War
German colonies in Southwest Africa and German Cameroon were conquered in 1915 by allies.
East Africa remained undefeated until the end of the war.
Europeans took foodstuffs, imposed heavy taxes, and forced Africans to grow export crops and sell them at low prices.
Uprisings occurred in colonies as few Europeans were there to lead.
1,000,000 Africans served in armies; 3x that number served as "porters" to carry army equipment.
Example: France drafted Africans because of a shortage of men.
Japan’s Entry into the War
Japan claimed it desired “to secure firm and enduring peace in East Asia."
Demanded Germany hand over German-leased territories in Asia without compensation.
Joined Allies in Aug. 1914, and forces took German-held islands of the Pacific.
The Twenty-One Demands
On Jan. 15, 1915, the Japanese presented China with 21 secret demands.
China was also part of the Allies.
Some they agreed to.
Leaks out to British who stop it.
Reflected the Japanese determination to dominate East Asia and future relations with China.
Ottoman Empire at War
Aug. 2, 1914, signed a secret alliance with Germany, hoping to gain land against their enemy: Russia.
The Gallipoli campaign was the most extensive military operation outside of Europe.
Winston Churchill (British Navy) suggested Allies strike Ottomans, the weak Central Power, to hurt Germans.
Wanted to open a warm-water supply line to Russia.
Australian Aid Allies
The British recruited Australians and others to help defeat the Ottoman Empire, which had allied itself with the Central Powers.
Gallipoli Campaign 1915
British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand soldiers landed on the beaches of Gallipoli.
Engaged in trench warfare again, resulting in stalemate with 250,000 casualties on each side.
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand suffered huge casualties, resulting in weakened ties to Britain & nationalism.
Long-term Effects of Campaign
ANZAC Day
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.
April 25th.
The most significant day of public homage.
Mustafa Kemal
Commander of the Turkish division made a name for himself.
Ist leader of modern Turkey.
Armenian Massacres 1915
By the 1880s, 2.5 million Christian Armenians in the Ottoman Empire had begun to demand their freedom.
1890’s Turkish troops killed tens of thousands.
Turkish nationalism stressed Turkish culture and traditions and saw them as an obstacle.
By WWI, Armenians pledged support for Ottomans' enemies, Russia.
Fearing the Armenians, whom they expected to be pro-Russian, the Turks forced mass evacuations of 2 million of them from their homelands in eastern Anatolia.
During the forced march across the mountains, approximately 600,000 died of starvation or were killed by Turkish soldiers.
Armenian Massacre Debate
The Turkish government rejects the label of it being a genocide but considers it communal warfare perpetrated by Christians and Muslims, disease, and famine.
The United States in WWI
Grew rich during the war.
Neutral but did roaring business supplying France and Britain.
Businesses engaged in war production made huge profits.
Civilians invested in war bonds and grew food in backyards, "victory gardens."
Employment opportunities were the reason for African American migration to the north.
America Joins the Fight
In Jan. 1917, Germany resumed their unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic to blockade Britain.
Sank 3 American ships.
The Zimmerman note was intercepted in February 1917.
Stated that Germany would help Mexico “reconquer” the lost territory to the US if they allied with them.
President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on April 2, 1917.
The Influenza Epidemic
In the spring of 1918, a powerful new enemy emerged, threatening nations on each side of World War I.
This “enemy” was a deadly strain of influenza.
The Spanish flu, as it was popularly known, hit England and India in May.
By the fall, it had spread through Europe, Russia, Asia, and to the United States.
The influenza epidemic killed soldiers and civilians alike.
In India, at least 12 million people died of influenza.
In Berlin, on a single day in October, 1,500 people died.
In the end, this global epidemic was more destructive than the war itself, killing 20 million people worldwide.
Russia and Revolution
Czar Nicholas II (1894-1917)
The last czar of Russia.
Well-intentioned but weak ruler.
Trying to calm revolutionary movements.
Looked to expand in the east (Korea and Manchuria). Leads to the Russo-Japanese war.
Russo-Japanese War 1904-5
Both Russia and Japan looking to expand into Manchuria and Korea.
Russia looking for a port farther south than Vladivostok.
Japanese attack and destroy Russian navy.
Demonstrates once again to Russians that they are behind industrially.
Revolution of 1905
Military defeat brings humiliation, and political and social discontent.
In January 1905, a group of workers marched on the czar’s Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to petition the czar for a popularly elected assembly and other concessions.
Government troops gunned down 130 people.
Came to be known as Bloody Sunday.
Result of Bloody Sunday Massacre
Labor unrest, angry peasants, student demonstrations, and mutinies in the army and navy.
Urban workers created new councils known as “soviets" to organize strikes and negotiate with employers and governments.
Elected delegates from factories and workshops served as members of these soviets.
Establishment of the Duma, a legislative assembly, Russia’s 1st parliamentary institution.
Lacked power and was disbanded.
Baltic provinces, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, and central Asia added to tensions.
Double Revolution in Russia
Russia in 1916 suffered numerous defeats.
Ran out of ammunition, ordered to use guns of fallen, railroads broke down, crops rotted in fields, widespread hunger, and fuel scarce.
February Revolution of 1917
Food ran out in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).
Women staged massive demonstrations, and soldiers mutinied.
Striking workers joined soviets (councils) to take over factories and segments of the military.
Czar Nicholas II and family abdicated the throne.
Set up a provisional government.
February through October witnessed a power struggle with the provisional government and soviets.
What’s a Soviet?
Revolutionary councils that consisted of workers, peasants, and soldiers.
Had great influence in the cities.
Became more powerful than the provisional government.
Provisional Gov’t’s Struggle for Power
Political struggles between Soviets and the Provisional Government.
Government makes changes.
Peoples support at first.
Disbanded police.
Repealed limits on speech and press.
Abolished laws that discriminated against ethnic groups.
Still didn’t satisfy popular demands for an end to the war and land reform.
The provisional government pledged to keep commitment to allies.
Soviets, in contrast, call for immediate peace and gain peoples support.
Lenin (1870-1924)
Son of government official, prosperous family.
Brother was executed for plotting to kill the czar.
Years in exile in Siberia and Switzerland.
Devoted time to studying Marxist thought & writing political pamphlets.
His goal was to create a party that would lead revolution.
In April 1917, he snuck in a sealed railway car by the Germans.
Gained support by promising immediate peace, all power to the soviets, and transfer land to the peasants.
Bolshevik slogans: “All Power to the Soviets!” and “Peace, Land, and Bread."
The October Revolution
On Nov. 6, 1917 (Oct. 24th in the Russian calendar-Julian), Bolsheviks rose up to take over the city of Petrograd (St. Petersburg).
Nationalized all private lands and ordered peasants to hand over crops without compensation.
Took over factories and drafted the workers into required labor brigades.
Created a secret police to arrest and execute opponents.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Bolshevik leaders signed it with Germany on March 3, 1918.
Gave Germany possession or control of 1/3 of Russia’s territory and ¼ of the population.
Lost Poland, Finland, and the Baltic States (Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania).
Allies Win the War
1917: Russia withdrew from the war because of civil unrest and revolution.
Allowed Germany to launch a massive attack on the Western Front.
Fresh American troops pushed back Germans, and the Central Powers began to crumble.
Bulgarians and Ottoman Turks surrendered.
Revolts in Austria-Hungary.
Germany signed an armistice (ceasefire) in November 1918, and the war came to an end.
Kaiser Wilhelm II stepped down, and Germany became a republic.
Legacy of War
Use of new technologies.
The war was on a global scale.
Price of human life.
Death of soldiers and civilians.
Lost generation of men.
Economic impact.
Drained economy by billion.
Sense of disillusionment.
Paris Peace Conference 1919
Leaves a bitter legacy.
32 nations were represented with different and conflicting aims.
Big Four: Georges Clemenceau of France, Lloyd George of Britain, Woodrow Wilson of US, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy.
Central Powers were not permitted to attend.
The blockade on Germany remained.
The Soviet Union was not invited.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Wilson’s proposal that prompted the Central Powers to end the war.
They accepted this proposal as the basis for the armistice and thought they would be used at the conference.
First Five Points
Included an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, free trade, and reduced national armies and navies.
Adjustment of colonial claims with fairness toward colonial peoples.
Sixth –Thirteenth Points
Suggestions for changing borders and creating new nations.
The guiding idea behind it was SELF-DETERMINATION.
Allow people to decide what government they wished to live under.
Fourteenth Point
Proposal of a “general association of nations” that would protect “great and small states alike.”
Wanted an organization that would solve world conflicts.
The Peace Treaties
The hardest terms originated with the French, who wanted the permanent weakening of Germany.
Treaty of Versailles, June 28, 1919
“War Guilt Clause” – Article 231 required Germany to accept sole responsibility for the war and pay reparations to Allies for the next 30 years.
Demanded a reduction of the military of former Central Powers.
Example: The German army was limited to 100,000.
Denied German navy and air force.
Prohibited any political union of Germany and Austria.
Colonies were taken away.
Other Treaties
Treaty of St. Germain and Trianon 1920
Divided Austria and Hungary.
Suffered severe territorial losses.
Example: Hungary -> 1/3 of size; population went from 28 to 8 million.
Treaty of Sevres 1920
Dissolved the Ottoman Empire.
Not acceptable to Turkish nationalists: Mustafa Kemal.
Head of Turkish nationalist movement.
Drove out Greek, French, British, and Italian forces.
Abolished the sultanate and replaced it with Turkish nationalists.
The Republic of Turkey was recognized in 1923.
Mustafa Kemal or Ataturk became the 1st President of Turkey.
Westernization and government policy of secularization that separated the existing Muslim religion and state.
League of Nations
Created as a world organization to safeguard peace and international cooperation.
The flaw was that it had no power to enforce decisions.
It relied on “collective security."
Aggression from one state is aggression against all.
Never happened because major powers didn’t always belong.
Example: Germany and Japan left it in 1933.
The United States Congress refused to let the US join.
New Nations
Self-determination was key to international peace.
In Europe, it became a reality but not elsewhere.
Europe’s new countries:
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia – “Land of the South Slavs."
The Mandate System !!
Self-determination was applied to Europe but not elsewhere.
How they dealt with Germany’s former colonies in Africa and Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire.
Mandate system – Examples:
French control in Lebanon and Syria.
British control in Palestine and Iraq.
Allies viewed it as a compromise between imperialism and self-determination.
To the people, it was more imperialism.
“Peace Built on Quicksand”
No lasting peace.
The US rejected it because we wanted to stay out of European affairs.
Isolationism.
We signed a separate treaty with Germany and its allies several years later.
The War Guilt Clause left a legacy of bitterness and hatred for Germans.
Africans and Asians were angry because they did not get their independence.
The Mandate system was just more colonialism.
Japan and Italy gained less than what they thought they would gain by joining Allies.
Quiz on The Great War: The World in Upheaval
Who created a satirical map of Europe in 1914?
a) John Singer Sargent
b) Walter Trier
c) Georges Clemenceau
d) Kaiser Wilhelm II
Answer: b) Walter TrierWhat does Sargent's painting "Gassed" depict?
a) The beauty of nature
b) The horrors of war
c) A political gathering
d) A peaceful landscape
Answer: b) The horrors of warWhat factor spread nationalism throughout Europe?
a) The Industrial Revolution
b) The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
c) The formation of political parties
d) The establishment of the United Nations
Answer: b) The French Revolution and Napoleonic WarsWhich empire was known as the "Sick Man of Europe" during the late 19th century?
a) The Ottoman Empire
b) The Austrian Empire
c) The Russian Empire
d) The German Empire
Answer: a) The Ottoman EmpireWhat sparked the immediate outbreak of World War I?
a) The sinking of the Lusitania
b) The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
c) The signing of the Treaty of Versailles
d) The Russian Revolution
Answer: b) The assassination of Archduke Franz FerdinandWho was the Chancellor of Germany before Kaiser Wilhelm II?
a) Otto von Bismarck
b) Heinrich Himmler
c) Friedrich Ebert
d) Wilhelm II
Answer: a) Otto von BismarckWhat was the primary purpose of propaganda during the war?
a) To criticize the enemy
b) To encourage anti-war sentiments
c) To persuade citizens and maintain morale
d) To provide accurate news
Answer: c) To persuade citizens and maintain moraleWhat was the main outcome of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
a) Strengthened the Allied Powers
b) Gave Germany control over parts of Russia
c) Created a new alliance
d) Ended the war in the East
Answer: b) Gave Germany control over parts of RussiaWhich battle is known as one of the bloodiest of World War I, particularly for the French?
a) The Battle of the Somme
b) The Battle of Verdun
c) The First Battle of the Marne
d) The Battle of Gallipoli
Answer: b) The Battle of VerdunWhat significant impact did the influenza epidemic have in 1918?
a) Severely affected soldiers only
b) Killed more people than the war itself
c) Increased military recruitment
d) Had no lasting effects
Answer: b) Killed more people than the war itself