Central Government

Factors Influencing Colonial Government Perspectives

  • The colonial mindset regarding government was shaped by internal factors in England and colonial experiences.

  • The discussions led to a transition towards revolution due to perceived injustices under British rule, which influenced the Articles of Confederation.

Articles of Confederation Overview

  • Definition: The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States, establishing a confederate system of governance.

  • National Government's Weakness:

    • The national government had a very limited set of powers and was weak overall, functioning more like a loose association of independent states.

    • Each state acted almost like an independent country, loosely connected under the national government.

Powers of the National Government under the Articles

  • Exhaustive List of Powers:

    • Negotiate Peace: Ability to engage in treaty-making with foreign countries.

    • Interact with American Tribes: Engage with Native American nations diplomatically.

    • Monetary Functions: Print money; however, it lacked a valuable backing for currency, leading to worthlessness.

    • Post Office Operations: Functioned to maintain postal services.

    • Military Appointment: Appointed army officers but could not enforce military obligations on states.

  • Lack of Executive and Judiciary:

    • No executive leader or president existed under the Articles, and there was no national judiciary.

    • Congress was the only governing body present.

  • Voting and Legislative Process:

    • Each state had one vote in a single chamber Congress, regardless of population size.

    • Required a supermajority (9 out of 13 states) to pass laws and unanimous consent to amend articles, hindering effective governance.

Challenges Faced by the National Government

  • Revenue Generation:

    • The government lacked the ability to raise taxes and, therefore, could not generate revenue.

    • The national debt post-Revolution was staggering, including debts owed to foreign nations and war veterans who were promised payments.

  • Currency Issues:

    • The national currency became worthless as states refused to accept it, leading to multiple state currencies and economic disorganization.

    • This caused significant challenges in debt repayments and domestic trade.

  • Trade Regulation:

    • Inability to regulate internal and external trade, leading to states taxing imports from each other, thereby jeopardizing a coherent economy.

  • Foreign Affairs:

    • No enforcement capability over state compliance with international agreements or treaties, weakening foreign relations.

  • Military Concerns:

    • Absence of a national militia; Congress could not compel states to fund or supply troops, leading to reliance on state goodwill.

Internal State-Level Issues

  • Land Redistribution Movements:

    • States, such as Pennsylvania, began taking over unused land from wealthy individuals to redistribute to the poor, significantly altering the political landscape.

  • Debt Suspension Movements:

    • Many states suspended debt collections, especially for war veterans who were owed government bonuses, leading to unrest among political elites.

Shay's Rebellion: Catalyst for Change

  • Event Description:

    • Daniel Shays led a rebellion of 1,500 armed veterans against the foreclosure of homes to demand relief from debts and mortgages.

    • Massachusetts' attempts to quell the revolt failed due to lack of state militia support.

  • Congressional Response:

    • Congress's call for a national militia went unanswered, highlighting the weakness of the national government and failure to maintain order.

Constitutional Convention

  • Purpose:

    • Intended to reform the Articles of Confederation but led to discussions about creating a new government system.

  • Attendee Profile:

    • Predominantly affluent white males from higher social classes, often protective of their interests in maintaining the economic and social status quo.

Major Plans Proposed

  • New Jersey Plan:

    • Aimed to amend the Articles and retain a unicameral Congress with equal representation.

    • Proposed limited taxation authority and creation of a national judiciary.

  • Virginia Plan:

    • Proposed a strong national government with three branches and bicameral legislature based on population, creating significant tensions among varying state interests.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

  • Summary:

    • Merged elements from both the New Jersey and Virginia Plans.

  • Legislative Structure:

    • Bicameral legislature established:

    • House: Directly elected by the people with representation based on population.

    • Senate: Equal representation for states, with senators selected by state legislatures.

  • Presidential Election:

    • President selected by an electoral college, creating a buffer between popular vote and election outcomes.

  • Power Dynamics:

    • National government emerged as supreme over states, contrasting the decentralized nature under the Articles.

Additional Compromises

  • Three-Fifths Compromise:

    • Established that enslaved individuals would be counted as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes, balancing interests between Northern and Southern states.

Principles of the New Government Structure

  • Federalism:

    • Division of power between national and state governments, ensuring national supremacy while allowing states a degree of autonomy.

  • Separation of Powers:

    • Power divided among legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each independent to prevent over-concentration of power.

  • Checks and Balances:

    • Each branch has authority to check the powers of the others, ensuring balance and preventing misuse of power.

  • Amendment Process:

    • A rigorous process involving two stages (proposal and ratification) requiring supermajorities to facilitate changes, making amendments intentionally difficult to achieve.


Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights

  • Civil Liberties: These refer to individual rights that are protected from government interference, primarily found in the Bill of Rights. Examples include the freedom of speech, right to privacy, and right to due process.

  • Civil Rights: These refer to the rights of individuals to receive equal treatment under the law, particularly in areas such as employment, education, and housing. Civil rights are intended to protect individuals from discrimination based on characteristics like race, gender, or disability.


What is the connection between separation of powers and checks and balances


The separation of powers is a political doctrine that divides the responsibilities of government into distinct branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. This division is designed to prevent the concentration of power in one branch and to provide for a system of governance directed by different bodies.

Checks and balances, on the other hand, is a system that ensures that each branch of government has some measure of influence over the other branches, thus limiting any one branch from gaining too much power. For example:

  • The legislative branch can create laws, but the executive can veto them.

  • The executive branch can enforce laws, but the judiciary can review their constitutionality.

This interplay between separation of powers and checks and balances is crucial for maintaining democratic governance and protecting civil liberties.