Exam Study Notes on the Caribbean, Mexico, Central, and South America

Chapter 8 – Caribbean Contrasts

  • Creole: Language/culture that develops from mixing parent languages; also refers to Caribbean cultures that blend African, European, and indigenous elements.
  • Export Processing Zone (EPZ): Industrial areas with special economic regulations (e.g., tax breaks) to produce goods for export.
  • Greater Antilles: Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and DR), Puerto Rico, and Jamaica.
  • Lesser Antilles: Smaller islands from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad.
  • Rimland States: Belize and the Guianas, with strong mainland influences.
  • Indentured labor: Workers (often from South Asia) sign contracts to work for a set period in exchange for passage to the Caribbean.
  • Maroon communities: Settlements of escaped enslaved people who formed independent societies.
  • Neocolonialism: Indirect control by powerful nations over less developed regions, often through economic means.
  • Offshore banking: Financial services for non-residents in countries with low regulation and taxation, like the Cayman Islands.
  • Operation Bootstrap: A post-WWII industrialization plan in Puerto Rico using U.S. investment and tax incentives to modernize the economy.
  • Distinguishing characteristics of the Caribbean: High cultural diversity, small island geography, plantation-based colonial history, and a stronger African influence than mainland Latin America.
  • Ejido system: Communal land system created after the Mexican Revolution where land was redistributed to peasant communities.
  • Environmental issues/hazards: Hurricanes, coastal erosion, deforestation, limited freshwater.
  • Cultural diversity: Influenced by African slavery, European colonization, indentured workers (South Asian), and indigenous populations.
  • Colonial powers & neocolonialism: Spain, France, Britain, Netherlands; U.S. neocolonial influence seen in economies and politics.
  • Haiti vs. Dominican Republic:
    • Haiti: French colony, Creole-speaking, poorest in hemisphere, deforestation, political instability.
    • DR: Spanish colony, more economic development, stronger ties to global economy, tourism-driven.
  • Major imports/exports:
    • Exports: Sugar, bananas, bauxite, textiles.
    • Imports: Fuel, manufactured goods, food.
  • Tourism shortcomings: Seasonal, vulnerable to disasters, profits often go to foreign companies, reinforces inequality.

Chapter 9 – Modernizing Mexico

  • Maquiladoras: Foreign-owned factories in Mexico, especially near the U.S. border, that assemble imported parts for re-export.
  • Mestizo: Person of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, the majority demographic in Mexico.
  • NAFTA (1994): North American Free Trade Agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
  • USMCA (2020): Updated version of NAFTA with changes to labor and trade rules.
  • Orographic precipitation: Rainfall caused by moist air rising over mountains.
  • Rain shadow: Dry region on the leeward side of a mountain due to blocked precipitation.
  • Remittances: Money sent home by migrants working abroad, significant in Mexico's economy.
  • Subsidence: Land sinking due to groundwater extraction, a problem in Mexico City.
  • Subtropical high (STH): Semi-permanent high-pressure zones that suppress rainfall.
  • Zapatista: Leftist revolutionary group in Chiapas advocating for Indigenous rights and land reform.
  • Climate-shaping factors: Altitude, subtropical high pressure, ocean currents, mountain ranges.
  • Environmental hazards: Earthquakes, volcanoes, droughts.
  • Mexico City challenges: Air pollution, water shortages, land subsidence.
  • Economic divide: North is industrial and integrated with the U.S.; South is rural and poorer.
  • Migration to U.S.: Driven by economic opportunity, family reunification, violence, and labor demand.
  • NAFTA impacts: Boosted trade, but also increased inequality and displaced small farmers.

Chapter 10 – Central America

  • DR-CAFTA: Trade agreement between the U.S., Dominican Republic, and Central American nations.
  • Indigenous peoples: Descendants of pre-Columbian civilizations (e.g., Maya), often marginalized but significant in Guatemala and southern Mexico.
  • Plantations: Large-scale agricultural operations producing export crops (e.g., bananas, coffee).
  • Subduction zone: Region where one tectonic plate is pushed under another, causing earthquakes and volcanoes.
  • Urban primacy/primate city: Disproportionately large and dominant capital city (e.g., Guatemala City, San Salvador).
  • Climate factors: Latitude, altitude, ocean proximity, trade winds, mountain ranges.
  • Environmental hazards: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes.
  • Indigenous distribution: Densest in Guatemala and southern Mexico; less so in coastal areas.
  • Factional struggles & U.S. role: Rooted in land inequality, Cold War geopolitics; U.S. backed anti-communist regimes and insurgencies.
  • Costa Rica's stability: No military, strong education system, democratic traditions, eco-tourism economy.
  • Migration causes: Violence, poverty, climate change, lack of opportunity.
  • Major exports/trade partners: Bananas, coffee, textiles; primary partners include the U.S. and Mexico.

Chapter 11 – Andean America

  • ALBA: Alliance of leftist Latin American countries promoting regional integration and social justice.
  • Altitudinal zonation: Classification of environment and agriculture by elevation (e.g., tierra caliente to tierra helada).
  • Andean Community: Regional trade bloc including Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
  • El Niño: Climate event that warms Pacific waters and disrupts weather patterns across South America.
  • Humboldt Current: Cold ocean current that cools western South America and supports rich fisheries.
  • Lithium: Critical mineral for batteries, abundant in Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.
  • Mediterranean climate: Hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters—found in parts of Chile.
  • Petrostate: Country dependent on oil exports for government revenue (e.g., Venezuela).
  • Climate-shaping factors: Andes Mountains, Pacific currents, elevation, El Niño/La Niña.
  • Environmental hazards: Landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, droughts.
  • Colombia geography/politics: Andes create isolated regions, complicate transportation and governance; past instability tied to drug trade.
  • Lima water scarcity: Coastal desert climate, rapid urbanization, glacial melt decline.
  • Indigenous distribution: High in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador (Andes); marginalized politically but culturally significant.
  • Natural resources/challenges: Minerals (copper, gold, lithium), oil; problems include price volatility, environmental degradation.

Chapter 12 – Brazil and Brazilian Amazonia

  • Branco: White Brazilian, typically of European descent.
  • Convective/convectional precipitation: Rainfall from heated, rising moist air—common in the tropics.
  • Deforestation: Large-scale forest clearing, especially in Amazonia for ranching, farming, and logging.
  • Frontier urbanization: Rapid city growth along edges of previously undeveloped land, like the Amazon.
  • Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): Band of low pressure near the equator, causes heavy rainfall.
  • Pardo: Mixed-race Brazilian.
  • Shifting cultivation: Traditional farming method that rotates land to preserve soil (slash-and-burn).
  • Várzea: Amazon floodplain with fertile soils used for seasonal agriculture.
  • Climate factors: Equator proximity, ITCZ, Amazon rainforest, Atlantic currents.
  • Environmental issues: Deforestation, biodiversity loss, illegal logging, ranching, fires.
  • Cultural diversity/racial democracy: Myth vs. reality—Brazil has deep racial mixing, but inequality persists.
  • Urbanization patterns: Rapid growth in southeast cities (São Paulo, Rio), emerging Amazonian cities.
  • Exports/energy: Soy, beef, iron ore, oil, ethanol, hydroelectric power.
  • Land use/economic demands: Expansion of agriculture and mining threaten Amazonia; conservation efforts exist but face resistance.

Chapter 13 – Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay

  • Common market: Trade bloc where goods, services, capital, and labor move freely.
  • Customs union: Trade agreement with common external tariffs and free internal trade.
  • Economic integration: Process of unifying economies through agreements (e.g., MERCOSUR).
  • Free trade area: Region where member countries remove tariffs among themselves.
  • Frontal precipitation: Rain formed by air masses colliding—common in southern South America.
  • MERCOSUR: Southern Cone trade bloc including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
  • Monetary union: Countries adopt a shared currency (not yet realized in MERCOSUR).
  • Polar front: Boundary between cold polar air and warm tropical air, influencing southern climates.
  • Staples economy: Economy reliant on the export of primary commodities (e.g., beef, soy).
  • UNASUR: Union of South American Nations promoting political and economic cooperation (inactive).
  • Climate factors: Latitude, ocean currents, Pampas plains, Andes rain shadow.
  • Environmental hazards: Flooding, drought, soil degradation, glacial retreat.
  • Major exports: Beef, soy, wheat, wine; Brazil and China are key trade partners.
  • Economic integration forms: MERCOSUR (customs union), bilateral agreements, proposals for common currency, limited monetary union.