Ancient Sri Lanka – Economy, Women, Food & Environment (Pages 92-99)

6.3 Finance and Exchange

• Meaning of “exchange”: any process of interchange carried out for an economic purpose.
• Earliest phase – Barter
  • Mentioned in historical sources as the first medium of exchange in Sri Lanka.
  • Archaeological clue: circular clay shells believed to have functioned as barter-tokens.
• Introduction of coined money
  • Around $250\,\text{B.C.}$ silver coins from North India appear.
  • Archaeologists call them “Hasebu” coins; epigraphy/literature call them “Kahapana” (inscriptions) / “Kahawanu” (literature); derived from the Sanskrit word Karshapana.
  • Shapes: round, square, rectangular.
  • Engraved with many symbols.
• Local minting of coins
  • Either late $1^{st}$ century B.C. or early $1^{st}$ century A.D. sees the first indigenous issue – coin with an elephant and a Swastika.
  • Subsequent kings issued their own coins.
  • A specialised officer kept standards: “Rupa Adyaksha” (Picto-director) / “Rupadaka” (inscriptions, $2^{nd}$ century B.C.).
  • Fig 6.2 in the text shows one such ancient coin.
• Metal weights as value
  • Example: a gold piece from Abhayagiri, Anuradhapura inscribed “Ran Devisi Kalanday” (letters date to $8^{th}/9^{th}$ century A.D.).
  • Kalanda = recognised weight-unit.
  • $10^{th}$-century Wessagiriya inscription: King Kashyapa IV (898-914 A.D.) donated 200 Ran Kalan to monks at Veerankura.
• Foreign coin circulation
  • Most numerous: Roman copper coins; also Chinese, Arabic, British.
  • Dutch V.O.C. copper used during Dutch period (East India Company).
  • Customs at harbours: foreigners paid in their own coins; value assessed by metal weight.
  • Demonstrates pragmatic, weight-based exchange standards.

6.4 Representation of Women

• General social attitude
  • Women highly respected; literary & archaeological evidence confirm.
  • Women could rule: e.g.
  – Inscription near Neelagiri Stupa (Lahugala) mentions Queen Chula Seewali.
  – Queen Leelawathi ruled three separate times.
• Freedom & daily life
  • Literary sources show no oppressive social bonds.
  • Rasawahini: tale of a woman living alone 3 yrs while husband traded abroad.
  • Motherhood revered (Buddhist value).
  • Rasawahini dialogue: Bhikkhus to Queen Vihara Maha Devi; queen replies that children > luxury.
• Marriage norms
  • Marriage a “social mission”.
  • Typical marriageable age: $16$.
  • Parents must protect daughters & teach cookery (Sahassawathuppkaranaya).
  • Culinary excellence honoured:
  – Prince Saliya’s wife Ashokamala won palace hearts via food.
  – Titles “Madhupachika” / “Madhurahaththarasa” bestowed on expert female cooks.
• Political/administrative leadership outside royalty
  • $2^{nd}$ century B.C.: provincial leaders titled Parumaka.
  • Brahmanayagama inscription: Parumakalu Samana (wife of Parumaka Nadika) → evidence of women in provincial administration.
  • Cave-donation inscriptions list many female donors.
  • Kokebe rock inscription ($2^{nd}$ century A.D.): Thalatha Lakshmi do­nated half her property to Buddhism under King Bhathiytissa.
• Material culture & cosmetics
  • Udaranchamadama (Rathnapura) excavation:
  – cosmetic metal stick for eyelashes (dated $1129\,\text{B.C.}$).
  – red/yellow-brown stones for skin coloration & a clay bead.
  • Ibbankatuwa prehistoric grave (700-450 B.C.) yielded necklace; some beads imported from India.
• Overall conclusion: Women enjoyed respect, legal agency, property rights, political roles, and cultural freedom; no evidence of systemic suppression.

6.5 Local Food

• Pre-historic diet
  • Beligala cave (10 500 years B.P.): wild breadfruit, Atikesel (wild banana).
• Staple crops (historic era)
  • Paddy/rice & Kurakkan (finger millet).
  • Other grains: Undu (black gram), Mun (green gram), Thala (sesame), Mae, Amu, Menari, Kongu, Waru, Yawa (barley).
  • Classical list of seven grains: Sali, Veehi, Kedesa, Varaka, Kangu, Duma, Yawa.
  • Thonigala inscription (King Keerthi Sri Meghavarnabhaya, 301-328 A.D.) explicitly cites paddy, Undu, Mun, Thala.
• Meat & luxury dishes
  • $12^{th}$ century: chieftains loved peacock meat cooked in ghee with El rice (El Hal) (source: Saddharmarathnawaliya).
• Commoners’ meals
  • Pala Maluwa + Kadi Embula with Niwudu rice (Kadi Embula = stale-rice powder prep).
• Gruel culture (Kenda / Yagu / Hambu)
  • Types:
  – Diya Kenda: boiled rice + salted water.
  – Yawagu / Ulu Kenda / Lunu Kenda: 1 part rice : 6 parts water, medicinal, for patients.
  – Rasa Ulu Kenda: milk-based, with bee honey, ghee, orange juice; very sweet.
  – Leaf-infused medicinal gruels: Embulhambu / Embul Kenda.
  • Gruel normally consumed as first daily meal.
• Desserts & sweets
  • Thala eaten directly or in sweets.
  • Thonigala inscription – offering sesame dessert to a monk.
  • Dampiyaatuwagatapadaya: Thila Sangulika → modern Thala Guli (sesame-treacle balls).
  • Athsunu = fried grain powder delicacy.
• Yams & vegetables
  • Yams: Wel Ala, Kukulala, Katu Ala, Kondola, Bathala (sweet potato), Sondala (Saddharmalankaraya).
  • Vegetables: Wetakolu, Thampala, Weraniya leaves, Kara leaves, Lunuwila, Labu, Puhul, Karabatu, Kekiri, Thibbatu, Nelambu Ala, Murunga.
  • Quoted description: “Labu, Puhul, Sondala, Wetakolu, … all varieties of vines with thorns.”
• Cooking methods
  • Base methods: Bedum (frying), Mellum (semi-cooked chopped greens), Hodda (gravy).
  • Additional: Anama, Embula, Niyambalawa (dry, finger-eaten curry).
• Spices (Kulu Badu / Katuka Bhanda)
  • Thuna Paha concept:
  – First three: Lunu (salt), Duru (dill), Miris (chilli).
  – Next five: Sudu Duru, Kalu Duru, Koththamalli (coriander), Aba (mustard), Uluhal (fenugreek).
  – Regional substitutions: Asamodagam, Sathakuppa for Aba/Uluhal.
  • Sour flavourings: Dehi (lime), Dodam (orange), Goraka, Nasnaran, Gadadehi.
  • Karambembiya = modern Karapincha (curry leaves).
• Oils & dairy
  • Generic term “Kana thel” (edible oil).
  • Main: Dunthel (sesame oil), Githel (ghee); limited use of Polthel (coconut oil).
  • Milk ubiquitous; inscriptions mention Kirigeri (village milk-cow) & Dee Kiri.
  • Poojawaliya story: father gifts cattle so daughter can always have curd.
• Fish & meat tax
  • Levy for catching fish in tank-outlet channels: “Mathrika Mathsya Bhagaya” (Mathrika = small water channels).
• Health philosophy
  • Diet focused on natural, minimally processed foods to sustain labour in agriculture & animal husbandry.
  • No artificial additives.

6.6 Protecting the Environment

• Why protect?
  • Deforestation → water scarcity, soil infertility/erosion, landslides → undermines agriculture & settlement.
• Legal/ecological governance
  • Mihindu IV’s Anuradhapura Plate Inscription: bans clearing of high-land forests.
  • Udaya III (935-938 A.D.) Buddhannehela Inscription: “Wal Wala Dandupath Nokapanu Isa” – do not fell forest trees.
  • Kondawattawan Inscription (Kashyapa V): orders officials to follow state forestry rules.
  • Inscriptions also cover soil conservation & wildlife protection.
• Cultural reflection
  • Fig 6.6 (Kelani temple, $19^{th}$ century) painting depicts vibrant environment – shows long-standing eco-aesthetic.
• Implication: Ancient Sri Lankans maintained systematic, law-based environmental stewardship; model for modern sustainability.

Important Facts (Page 99 Recap)

• Ancient society had a top-down yet mutually responsible hierarchy.
• Rulers ensured law & justice; populace law-abiding.
• Efficient economy with coinage; Roopadaka ensured mint standards.
• Women enjoyed respect, identity, and power, including rulership.
• Balanced nutrition & organised food habits underpinned robust civilisation.
• Eco-centric ethos: laws protected animals, forests & soil.

Glossary / Key Concepts

• Urbanization
  • Transformation from village (small, kin-based settlement) to city (large, profession-based settlement).
  • Triggered by rising production, wealth accumulation, emergence of capitalists.
  • Hallmarks: trade (local & foreign), specialised craftsmanship, governmental structure, use of writing.
• Social Stratification
  • Differentiation of society by wealth/economic role.
  • Typical strata: Proletariat, Middle Class, Capitalist Class.

Ethical / Philosophical Connections

• Respect for women, animals, forests shows holistic value system blending Buddhist compassion with pragmatic governance.
• Food & medicine intertwined – idea that diet is a moral and medical responsibility.
• Coinage & weight-based customs show inter-cultural openness and fairness—tax valued on intrinsic metal, not origin.

Real-World Relevance / Lessons for Today

• Sustainable eating: local grains, plant-based diversity, minimal processing.
• Gender empowerment: historical precedent for female leadership and property rights.
• Sustainable finance: intrinsic-value currency vs inflationary fiat parallels.
• Environmental legislation: ancient legal models for modern conservation acts.

Cross-Lecture Links

• Ties to prior study of ancient irrigation: environmental laws complement massive hydraulic works.
• Parallels with Ashokan edicts in India on animal & forest protection – regional eco-governance tradition.
• Coinage discussion connects to global trade networks (Roman/Chinese coins) studied in previous module.