Spartan Society and Government

The Great Rhetra and Lycurgus

The Great Rhetra was the oral constitution attributed to Lycurgus, a legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who is said to have created it around 650 BCE. It governed all aspects of Spartan society, including government structure and economic systems. Questions surrounding Lycurgus include his historical existence, the origins of the Rhetra, and whether it developed organically over time or was the result of a single individual's vision.

Historical Sources on Lycurgus

  1. Plutarch (2nd Century CE): As a biographer, Plutarch described how Lycurgus consulted the Oracle at Delphi for guidance on Spartan governance. He suggested that Lycurgus sought to revolutionize the Spartan system based on prophetic revelations.

  2. Herodotus: His accounts indicate that Lycurgus may have brought the Rhetra from Crete and served as regent to his nephew, King Leobotus, emphasizing a different origin story for the constitution.

  3. Xenophon: He celebrated the Rhetra for establishing Sparta as a successful polis. His writings demonstrate a bias towards the effectiveness of Lycurgus's reforms but lack concrete evidence regarding their historical reliability.

Spartan Government Structure

Sparta's government was established around 650 BCE to bring order to a chaotic state. It followed a mixed constitution comprising elements of monarchy (dual kingship), oligarchy (Gerousia), and democracy (Ekklesia and Ephorate).

Key Political Bodies:

  • Dual Kingship: Two kings ruled from opposing clans, responsible for military command, religious duties, and limited judicial functions.

  • Gerousia: An oligarchy of 30 members (including the two kings) served for life, proposing legislation to the Ekklesia.

  • Ekklesia: Comprised of male citizens over 30, acted as the general assembly but held limited power as decisions could be overruled.

  • Ephorate: Five elected officials who acted as overseers, checking the power of the kings and enforcing the constitution.

Social Hierarchy

The social structure in Sparta was strict:

  • Spartiates (full citizens and soldiers),

  • Perioikoi (free non-citizens working in crafts and trades),

  • Helots (state-owned slaves providing agricultural labor), and

  • Inferiors (groups excluded from citizenship).

Additional Classifications:

  • Partheniai: Children of unmarried Spartans,

  • Mothakes: Non-Spartan boys educated alongside Spartans,

  • Neodamodeis: Freed helots who served in the military,

  • Hypomeiones: Spartans who lost citizenship due to cowardice.

Control of the helots was a significant aspect of Spartan society, as they were state-owned slaves providing agricultural labor. The Spartans implemented several methods to maintain dominance over the helots and prevent uprisings:

  • Military Presence: Helots were subjected to strict military oversight, with Spartan soldiers often stationed nearby to discourage rebellion. The fear of violent repression helped suppress potential revolts.

  • Syssitia: The syssitia were communal meals that reinforced solidarity among Spartan warriors. Participation in these meals was mandatory for Spartiates and served as a means to bond the elite and ensure control over helots who provided the food and labor necessary to sustain these gatherings. that this busy-ied the helots from creating uprisings and fostered reliance on their role within Spartan society, ultimately reinforcing the power dynamics between the Spartan citizens and the helots.

  • Krypteia: This was a secret police force primarily composed of young Spartans who were tasked with monitoring and keeping the helot population in check. They would practice tactics to instill fear, including killing helots who were deemed a threat, thus maintaining the Spartans’ control.

These systems worked together to ensure the oppression of the helot population, which was crucial for sustaining the Spartan economy and military readiness.

Spartan Military Ethos

Military life was central to Spartan society, with strong emphasis on camaraderie, discipline, and cohesion. The Agoge was a rigorous training and educational system for youths, focusing on creating disciplined soldiers who prioritize communal identity over family.

Key Aspects of Military Training:

  • Training from childhood included physical fitness, military tactics, and endurance.

  • The Phalanx formation was a key innovation in Spartan warfare, though it had vulnerabilities against different enemy tactics.

The Role of Women

Spartan women enjoyed more rights compared to other Greek women, including education, property rights, and participation in physical training. Their societal value was linked to producing strong offspring for the military.

Women managed estates in their husbands' absences and played a crucial role in upholding Spartan values, perpetuating a culture that prioritized strength and loyalty to the state. Their unique position empowers them within the strictly controlled Spartan hierarchy, albeit without formal political rights.

Conclusion

Despite historical debates about the exact nature and existence of Lycurgus and the Great Rhetra, their significance in shaping the Spartan way of life and governance remains evident. The unique blend of governance elements created a structure that balanced power and responsibility among different societal groups, contributing to Sparta's reputation as a formidable military power in ancient Greece.

Sparta's religious life emphasized a military ethos among the worship of the 12 Olympians, with key deities including:

  • Artemis Orthia: A fusion of Artemis with an older deity, she was central to Spartan values regarding childbirth, military, and hunting, protecting pregnant women. The cult, located at her temple, is evidenced by numerous excavated offerings.

  • Poseidon: Worshipped as the god of the sea and earthquakes, Poseidon had multiple shrines, including a notable temple at Cape Taenaron. His relevance was highlighted during earthquakes seen as divine punishment.

  • Apollo: Revered as a multifaceted deity associated with light and music, Apollo was honored in major Spartan festivals. A bronze statue dedicated to him stood at the temple of Apollo in Amyclae.

  • Zeus: Worshipped in two forms, Zeus Uranus and Zeus Lakedaimonion, the dual kings served as chief priests, underscoring a strong religious leadership.

  • Athena: Recognized in the form of Athena Chalkiokos, her military associations aligned with Spartan values, linked to the Temple of Athena at the Bronze house.

Myths and Legends

  • Lycurgus: While his historical existence is debated, he symbolizes significant developments in Sparta such as the Agoge and military ethos. He is seen as a divinely inspired figure through the Oracle at Delphi.

  • Dioscuri: The mythical twin founders of Sparta, there are various legends explaining their lineage, including ties to Zeus and their collective role in Spartan identity.

Religious Festivals
Spartans shared a dual obsession with worship and warfare, which was exemplified by their festivals:

  • Hyakinthia: Dedicated to Apollo, this festival included a solemn period of mourning and a subsequent celebration of life, emphasizing community bond and gratitude to Apollo.

  • Gymnopaedia: Noted by historians as solemn, it involved athletic competitions and was a platform for reinforcing military seriousness and social hierarchy.

  • Karneia: A harvest festival associated with prophetic significance, featuring a nine-day foot race that symbolized good omens depending on the race's outcome. It also imposed a temporary end of hostilities, reflecting Spartan values.

  • Rites of Passage: Included unique rituals such as the festival of cheese, showcasing the integration of military training within religious practices, fostering endurance and resilience among youth while honoring their deities.

Cultural life in Sparta, evident through art and architecture, flourished during the 6th to 7th centuries BCE but declined by the 5th century due to population decline and issues with helots culminating in the military defeat at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE.

Art

  • Sculpture: Primarily made of bronze post-6th century BCE, notable examples include the Vix krater, which features hoplite soldiers. Bronze sculptures of young girls exercising and lead figurines from the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia exemplify Spartan artistic output.

  • Painted Vases: The Arkesilas cup illustrates both trade and art, while other famous examples include an amphora painted by the Hunt painter depicting cranes and sphinxes.

  • Kylix: This form includes depictions of hoplite soldiers and stories from Greek mythology, demonstrating Spartans’ cultural representation through myth.

  • Bone & Ivory Carving: At the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, ivory carvings of soldiers served as sacrificial objects pleading for strong offspring from Spartan women.

Architecture

  • Amyklaion: A temple to Apollo and Hyakinthos built in the 6th century BCE, revealing Spartan dedication through its construction and housing a large bronze statue of Apollo.

  • Menelaion: A shrine to mythological figures Menelaus and Helen built around 700 BCE, located on Mt Parnon, showcasing early cultural life and connections to broader Greek mythology.

  • Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia: As a major cult site dedicated to Artemis Orthia, this location was significant for community rituals, including offerings from Spartans and the cheese-stealing festival, highlighting its role as a hub of cultural activity.

Writing and Literature: Alcman and Tyrtaeus
Sparta had a strong oral tradition, recording their history and state values into poetry which featured religious festivals, the educational system, and military themes. These contrasting poets paint an image of Sparta's cultural life.

Alcman
Alcman explored the cultural life of Spartans and was active in the late 7th century BCE. He was a Spartan writer who composed choral poetry, primarily for women to perform at religious festivals, as part of their education. His poems addressed themes such as romance and the beauty of nature, which contrasts with the perceived image of Spartans as professional warriors. Preserved fragments of his work include pieces like "Maiden Songs," referencing the honey-voiced maidens, young women who performed this type of choral poetry. This provides a vivid image of Spartan women engaging in the warmth of cultural life, which is seldom addressed by other Greek writers.
(www.delphiclassics.com/Sample%20PDFs/The%20Fragments%20of%20Alcman%20-%20sample.pdf)

Tyrtaeus
Living in the early 7th century BCE, Tyrtaeus' work serves as insight into the early cultural life of Sparta. His poetry embraced traditional themes and emphasized Spartan military values, reflecting a strong dedication to warfare. His writings promoted ideals of the Spartan soldier, including the honor of dying for one's homeland.

Greek Writers’ Views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, Plutarch

Herodotus
Herodotus was contemporary with Sparta but never visited the city itself; he was of Central Asian origin. He traveled extensively across the ancient world, collecting stories for his work Histories. Due to his reliance on hearsay, particularly Athenian accounts, his reliability on Spartan society might be questioned. He conveyed both praise and criticism of Sparta's government and constitution.
QUOTE:
"…fighting singly they are good as any, but fighting together they are the best soldiers in the world" -Herodotus

Aristotle
As a prominent Greek philosopher, Aristotle offered a critical Athenian perspective on Sparta. He focused on the Spartan constitution, denouncing its excessive military focus at the expense of democratic ideals. He also commented on Spartan family life and treatment of children.
QUOTE:
"The Spartans brutalize their children…they go about it completely the wrong way" -Aristotle, Politics

Plutarch
A biographer writing 200 years after the height of Sparta, Plutarch's reliability is debated. In his work Life of Lycurgus, he documents social, cultural, and daily lives of Spartans and viewed Lycurgus positively.
QUOTE:
"Lycurgus I say stands in rank of glory high above the founders of all other Greek states" -Plutarch

Thucydides
Writing after Herodotus, Thucydides was an Athenian general. His perspective included strong criticism of Sparta, particularly in his work History of the Peloponnesian War. His account often displayed Athenian bias while downplaying Spartan military accomplishments.
QUOTE:
"Those born into a world of the far future would find it difficult to believe that the power of Sparta had deserved its reputation" -Thucydides

Pausanias wrote a traveler's guide in the 2nd century AD that primarily focused on ancient buildings and temples in Laconia, including the historic site of Sparta, 400 years post-battle of Leuctra. His work is often criticized for its limited scope, mainly addressing geography with little insight into Spartan life.

QUOTE: "The most striking feature of the agora is the stoa.." - Pausanias

Xenophon, an Athenian who lived in Sparta for many years, stands out as a supporter of Spartan culture. He admired the structure of the Spartan system, particularly the Rhetra and Agoge, discussing these in his work "The Constitution of the Lacedaemonians".

QUOTE: "Lycurgus…brought his fatherland the pinnacle of prosperity" - Xenophon

Leisure Activities
Daily life in Sparta was strictly hierarchical, with helots taking on agricultural and domestic roles, allowing Spartans to engage primarily in military activities. In their free time, Spartans participated in military exercises, hunting, banquets, drinking, and chariot racing. Religious festivals and athletic competitions were also considered leisure activities. Spartan women had time for domestic duties and shared in athleticism until marriage, participating in religious festivities by performing choral poetry and dancing.

Food and Clothing
Helots cultivated food on Kleroi, including radishes, barley, figs, and bread, with game such as wild boar supplementing the diet. Spartans enjoyed meals served at the syssitia mess hall; a notable dish was 'black broth', made from pig's blood, which led one visitor to remark, "now I understand why the Spartans do not fear death."

Armour included the hoplite shield and the phauinikos, a red cloak. Spartan boys wore a red chiton, while women wore the peplos, which Aristotle referred to as 'thigh flashers', suggesting a scandalous appearance despite their married status.

Marriage Customs
Marriage in Sparta was mainly for procreation, and they held a more relaxed view on monogamy and heterosexual norms. Spartan girls typically married at 18 years, later than the 14-year standard of other Greek societies, as noted by Plutarch.

Leisure Activities (ACHAH136)

  • Spartans' leisure activities were shaped by their occupation: all Spartiates were full-time hoplite soldiers, trained for war and expected to maintain peak physical condition.

  • Perioikoi (free non-citizens) were craftsmen, traders, and fishermen, while helots (state-owned slaves) worked on farms.

  • Because Spartans lived permanently in military barracks, leisure time was rare and mainly consisted of military training, hunting, and athletic contests designed to enhance combat readiness.

  • The strict military lifestyle and occupation roles show that Spartan "leisure" often reinforced the values of strength, endurance, and discipline.

Marriage Customs

  • According to Plutarch (Marriage by Capture), Spartan marriages involved a symbolic abduction: the groom shaved the bride's head, dressed her in men’s clothing and sandals, and carried her off.

  • Married men still lived in barracks and only visited their wives secretly at night, showing that marriage was secondary to military service.

  • The dowry, usually a plot of land, was arranged by the bride’s father and the groom. However, men did not live on this land—only helots farmed it for them.

  • These customs reflected the Spartan focus on strength and virility over personal or domestic life.

  • Xenophon wrote:

    "When married people meet in this way they must feel stronger desire for the company of another and produce more robust offspring,"
    showing that even marriage was structured to create strong, healthy future soldiers for the state.