General Psychology: learning, emotion, motivation and attention (IU)

Central Nervous System: consist of the brain and spinal cord; main functions relate to sensory (physical) info input, info processing, and motor signal output; obtains sensory info from the nervous system and regulates bodily reactions

Sympathetic Nervous system: regulates the body's instant spontaneous (involuntary) response to threatening situations or stimuli -  achieved from an influx of hormones that increase the body's vigilance and heart rate, delivering more blood to the muscles

Cerebral Cortex: Frontal lobe: movement, problem solving, concentrating, thinking, behavior, personality, mood

Temporal lobe: hearing, language, memory; Parietal lobe: sensations, language, perception, body awareness, attention;

Occipital lobe: vision, perception Motor area: control of voluntary muscles, Broca's area: speech control, Brain stem: consciousness, breathing, heart rate, Sensory area: skin sensation(temperature, pressure, pain) , Wernicke's area: language, comprehension, Cerebellum: posture, balance, coordination of movement;

Limbic System: Cingulate gyrus, Parahippocampal gyrus, Pineal gland, Hippocampus, Mammillary bodies, Amygdala, Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Corpus callosum, Fornix

Hippocampus: largest structure of the limbic system, located in the temporal lobe; temporal with the frontal lobe function processing and storing explicit memory content, hippocampus removed - cure epilepsy; hippocampus damage - struggle remembering daily live events, no longer recall verbal info learning new skills intact

Amygdala: located in the temporal lobe, this is where the hearing and speech centers can be found, important function in learning and processing emotion and the formation of emotional memory. Responsible for the perception of emotion, also conditioning fear. When it is activated fear and anxiety arises - fight or flight Removal both hemispheres would lead to changes in social behavior

Hypothalamus: smallest structure in the brain, consist of small bundles of neurons that regulate various physiological processes, body temperature, sexual arousal, the need for drink food, stress response, regulates endocrine system, homeostasis - internal balance of our body; damage to the lateral hypothalamus results in aphagia and adipsia - failure to eat drink; ventromedial hypothalamus responsible for hunger suppression - lead to obesity; reduced glucose - hungry, increased glucose full; also responsible for regulating sex drive

Prefrontal cortex: PFC and its subdivisions are from the limbic system from the biological basis of learning that is based on emotion (intuition) know to link emotion with memory, decision making; left prefrontalcortex: positive, happy emotions, right prefrontal cortex: negative emotions, fear; damage to PFC unable to learn from previous experience, make bad decisions

Autonomic Nervous System: 2 essential tasks: supplies our internal organs, vessels, glands, creates the body state of homeostasis which needs to be carried out to ensure optimal functioning of organs; 2 parts Sympathetic, parasympathetic

Parasympathetic Nervous System: restore the body, active with surprising or aversive emotions

Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers, its function is neuronal info transmission produced by neurons to affect other nearby cells, 2 basic cell types glial cell, neuron

Neuron: foundations of our nervous system, born with 100 billion, , neurons made up of different parts that are responsible for specific functions: Dendrite, Soma, Axon, Nucleus, Myelin heath, Node of Ranvier, Schawn cell, Axon terminal, neuron's surface made up of semipermeable membrane - allows smaller molecules and particles without an electric current to pass through

Gial cell: supportive role to neurons, deliver the platform upon which the nervous system is constructed

Soma: or cell body the core of the neuron,

Dendrites: are the splitting expansions of the soma; operate as input stations where signals from other neurons arrive

Axon: a fiber of a neuron that arises from the cell body of a nerve and via nerve impulses are transmitted from the soma to the axonal endings, they vary in sizes

Myelin sheath: in some axons glial cells produce this oily tissue, this covers the axon and acts as an insulator with the function of boosting the signal speed, vital for the normal function of the neurons

Nodes of Ranvier: small gap between myelin sheaths

Presynaptic neuron: nerve cells that carry the neurotransmitters and release them into the synaptic cleft

Acetylcholine: neurotransmitter, function: learning, memory, muscle movements; malfunction: Alzheimer's disease

Dopamine: neurotransmitter, function: learning, attention, feelings, movement; malfunctions: schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease; responsible for the initiation of motivated or goal-oriented behavior, it is released from the ventral tegmental area in the brain and follows the pathway either forward ton the ventral striatum ot the orbitofrontal cortex; also relevant to the process of learning and memory, to engage in a certain behavior we need to learn remember and be motivated

Serotonin: neurotransmitter; function: hunger, mood, sleep, arousal; malfunction: depression

Noradrenalin: neurotransmitter; function: control of excitement, wakefulness; malfunction: depression, depressive mood

GABA: neurotransmitter; function: inhibitory neurotransmitter; malfunction: seizures, tremors, insomnia

Glutamate: neurotransmitter; function: excitatory neurotransmitter; malfunction: migraines, seizures

Endocrine System: responsible for the regulation of essential functions of central nervous system. It is a group of glands that produces hormones as chemical messengers which are released to the bloodstream; not only influences our emotional experience and behavior but also guarantee the maintenance of everyday functions, influences growth and the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics

Pituitary gland: middle part of the brain and occupies a central position with the endocrine system, it produces different types of hormones that influence all the other glands by stimulating or slow down the release of certain hormones

Testosterone: hormone that influence sexual behavior, higher in men

oxytocin : hormone that is released not just during intimacy but also when  we eat chocolate, hug, breastfeed

Instinct: unlearned, inherent pattern of behavior designed to increase the chances of survival of the species

Reflex: simplest form of instinct, it is a response (motor or neutral) to a specific stimulus from the environment that requires a specific bodily reaction

Learning: Learning: requests a lasting change in the behavior/knowledge resulting from experience, one of the most important abilities of a living organism. 2 type: non-associative: occurs in response to a single stimulus and involves habituation and sensitization. 2. associative: more complicated form of learning that entails the process of conditioning.

Habituation: a behavioral response decrement

Sensitization: occurs in the repeated presence of an intense stimulus that intensifies a behavioral response

Conditioning: is the ability to connect stimuli with responses, involves learning relationships between events and it includes classical and operant conditioning

Classical conditioning: occurs when a neutral stimulus is associated with a stimulus that generates behavior, once conditioning takes place, this NS brings about response because it is paired with a stimulus that already produces a similar response

Operant conditioning: is a learning process in which the consequences followed a response to determine whether behavior will be repeated, Reinforced likely repeated, punished not likely repeated

Second order or high order conditioning: is a situation in which the constant pairing of a novel neutral stimulus and a previously conditioned stimulus elicits the same conditioned response the novel neutral stimulus as the one to a previously conditioned stimulus

Acquisition: Acquisition: initial learning period when we are acquiring the association the NS (whistle) and the US (food); NS become CS which elicits the same response as the original US = CS is all you need

Extinction: Extinction: a state in which there is a decrease in the CR when the original CS (whistle) is presented alone while the dog does not responds to the CS (whistle); CS returns to its original NS state

Spontaneous recovery: Spontaneous recovery: dog rest for a while then the whistle used again; after waiting period the dog salivated to the sound of whistle demonstrating spontaneous recovery, evidence that extinction conditioning does not result incomplete unlearning

Stimulus generalization: after conditioning a response to stimulus, a tendency becomes generalized so the animal has the same response to similar CS

Stimulus discrimination: opposing process to generalization, it is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other unrelated stimuli

Equipotentiality: proposes that all stimuli can be conditioned in the same way

Preparedness: our greater willingness to favorably associate specific stimuli with evolutionary significant stimuli. Phobia avoidance behavior exhibits a high degree of preparedness. people are not similar in terms of there preparedness (snake)

Blocking: a new stimulus will no longer be learned if its simultaneously learned with a previous stimulus (CS1) that has already predicted the US effectively

Mirror neuron: this group of neuron was observed firing when they were watching other monkeys performing action

Reinforcement: positive reinforcement add something positive, negative reinforcement remove something negative = more likely to repeat action

Punishment: positive punishment add something negative, negative punishment removes something positive = decrease behavior

Emotion: complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and psychological elements by which an individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event, components: cognitive, physiological, behavioral, subjective

Affect: special kind of influence

Mood: represents a constant reality state in life

Feelings: refer to the perception of somatic states combined with mental states while emotion is experienced

Two dimensional emotional approach: Positive affect-high activation: Exited; Positive affect-moderate activation: Pleased; Positive affect - Low activation: Tranquil; Negative affect - High activation: Sad; Negative affect - Moderate activation: Annoyed; Negative affect - Low activation: Sluggish

The Wheel of Emotions: Joy - Trust: Love; Trust - Fear: Submission; Fear - Surprise: Awe; Surprise - Sadness: Disappointment; Sadness - Disgust: Remorse; Disgust - Anger: Contempt; Anger - Anticipation: Aggression; Anticipation - Joy: Optimism

Behaviorist psychology: embraces the theory of learning, learning while interacting with the environment (Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner

Collectivist cultures: the community goals are the focus

Individualistic cultures: individuals goals are dominant

Implicit memory: independent of conscious memory, effortless

Explicit memory: experiences that are consciously known and can be acknowledged, retrieving the info requires a conscious effort to restore it through memory process

Freezing: state of alertness and is associated with increased arousal and an action tendency of stopping, looking, listening that is associated with fear

Direct fear stimulus processing: immediately via the thalamus, directly to amygdala = triggers fight or flight

Indirect fear stimulus: transmitted via the thalamus - prefrontal cortex = emotional message amygdala

Unconscious processing of emotions: below the threshold of conscious awareness still reach visual cortex

Top-down processing: perception processes from past experiences, expectations; correspond to judgement

Bottom-up processing: perceptions without conscious awareness

Lesion studies: removed or inflicted damage to the temporal lobe  - behavioral change

Extrovert Personality Type: sociability, carelessness, activity, dominance, liveliness, need higher level of external stimulation

Sensation seeking personality trait: have a higher arousal level, prefer high intensity activities - alcohol, drug abuse -

Impulsivity personal trait : an ability to stop certain behavior because of social adaptation. high degree: not in control of behavior, ADHD

Negative affectivity: tendency of people experience a state of negative emotions and has the characteristics of fearfulness, nervousness, irritability

Learned helplessness:: state because of learning experiences -- don't control of their own life

Anxiety as personality trait: cognitive component related to concern , emotional; component of  perceived autonomic arousal, lack of self-confidence

Type A personality: specific type of personality that is ambitious, rushed, impatient, excitable, prone to anger and aggression, higher risk of heart attack

Type D personality: suppression of feelings in social relationships, aggression, hostile

Impression management: technics people use to favorably presents themselves to others

Emotional regulation: process which we influence emotions, increase/decrease and maintenance positive negative emotions, can be conscious and unconscious, neither negative or positive

Mediator: mediates or establishes the connection between 2 factors

Stress reaction: psychological side of stress -  strong emotional responses and pain increase the release of adrenaline and lead to certain physical changes

Motivation: process that drives, initiates, and sustains goal-directed behavior, influenced by biological, emotional, social, cognitive factors that every day trigger human behavior

Intrinsic Motivation: inner process, it brings a certain degree of personal satisfaction and pleasure

Extrinsic Motivation: behavior that people engage in to obtain stg from others (sport-winning trophy)

Motivation Mechanisms: allow people to set goals and stay motivated. Dopamine is responsible for the imitation of motivated or goal oriented behavior - relevant to the process of learning and memory.1:Activation: decision to begin with a certain behavior 2:Presistence: constant effort to goal 3:Intensity:strength and enthusiasm.

Hunger Motivation: relates to the body's physiological and neurobiology in the brain; it can be also perceived as a psychological or emotional motivated. Hypothalamus is regulating hunger -  when activated motivates us to eat. Damage to hypothalamus: aphagia and adipsia (failure to eat and drink respectively, reduced glucose: hungry increased glucose: full

Motivation Sexual: biologically driven motivation, hypothalamus is responsible for regulating sex drive. Amygdala and prefrontal cortex also play role. Damage to limbic areas negative impact in sexual behavior,; it can be influenced by hormones: testosterone, estrogen, oxytocin

Implicit Motives: unconscious, genetically defined, desire driven, spontaneous, context specific, quick activation, stimulus focused, effortless; aim : satisfying emotional state

Explicit Motives: conscious, culturally defines, duty-driven, slow activation, language focused, analytical, ; aim: preservation of self-image, consequences of action

Biogenetic Motives: serves to purpose of preservation of species, associated with specific emotions, often depend on learning processes (hunger, thirst, sexuality)

Sociogenetic motives

Sociogenetic motives: Achievement Motive:: behavior driven by the desire to achieve

Sociogenetic motives: Power motive: to gain positions of power to impress and lead others. Connection between testosterone level (high) and dominance behavior in females power motives and estradiol, sex hormone

Sociogenetic motives: Connection Motive: tendency to connect with other people, people who connection driven spend more time with friends, make eye contact, initiate conversations more often, tend to be more socially anxious and often dissatisfied with relationships

Extrinsic Behavioral Regulation types: Amotivation: the person is entirely non-autonomous, not motivated, none of their needs met

Extrinsic Behavioral Regulation types: External Regulation: comes immediately after motivation, only motivation is external, controlled by compliance, external rewards and punishments

Extrinsic Behavioral Regulation types: External Regulation: comes immediately after motivation, only motivation is external, controlled by compliance, external rewards and punishments

Extrinsic Behavioral Regulation types: Introjected Regulation: to some extent external and guided by self-control, attempts to protest the self

Extrinsic Behavioral Regulation types: Identified Regulation: motivation is internal guided by conscious ideals and values that are personally relevant and significant to the person

Self-efficacy: believing in one's ability to complete a task, influenced by current or past performance on a similar tak, verbal persuasion, physiological factors and past experiences ; self-efficacy influences the choice one is making; high self-efficacy difficult task more challenging goals

Reciprocal causation: describes the interaction between three variables in the learning process: Environment, Behavior and Individual

Self-Regulation: the ability to regulate or control our actions 3 phrases

Forethought Phase: prior to the action and setting goals, planning, motivation

Performance Phase: when one is performing the action, it involves self-control and self-observation

Self-reflection: is after the action has been performed, one performs a self - evaluation and responds to it - creates a new forethought

Cocktail Party Effect: a human cognitive ability (attention) to focus and recognize a single source of auditory information (voice) from many other auditory sources

Attention: defined as the processes during a situation in which human cognitive abilities are centered around specific stimuli in the environment rather than on others

Alertness: refers to a state of full awareness and attentiveness in anticipation of an action or reaction

Tonic Alertness: general, refers to a general increase in activation and responsiveness; it is an overall level of alertness

Phasic alertness: quick, refers to the ability to momentarily increase response readiness to handle an external warning signal (auditory, or visual)

Vigilance: the action or state of keeping careful watch for possible danger or difficulties; form of sustained concentration or attention

Perception: the ability to receive a variety of info from the environment through the senses, combine them through neuronal brain activity and make sense of the world we live in

Divided attention: is a cognitive process that allows people to engage in two equally demanding activities at the same time

Sublimal stimulus: has an intensity below the required threshold of perception

Contention Scheduling: actions are represented by several schemas at the same line - triggered by the preparation of an appropriate event.

Schema: a pattern of behavior and thinking. The selection of a specific schema is determined by how well the triggering conditions match the contents of the triggered database.

Supervisory Attentional System: is a control of function only triggered in novel circumstances; it is cognitive function model relevant to executive function and attentional control'

Difference threshold: describes the minimum difference necessary between two stimuli for a person to observe the change 50% of the time

Endogenous attention: deliberate, prolonged and goal-directed process, operates at a conscious level, allows individual to choose one thing over another

Exogenous attention: externally created process generated by physical characteristics such as color, or shape of stimuli in the environment. Permits significant info to disrupt goal-driven behavior rapidly opposing the intentions of the observer. It operates automatically and momentarily, it is stimulus driven.

Stroop effect: describes the reaction interval among automatic and controlled info processing, the test evaluates one's selective attention and overall excentive abilities

Object based approaches to visual attention: it has limited resources; the object based approach assures that the number of individual objects that can be seen as also limited. Duncan was able to support both the assumption of the dimension based approach and the object based

Visual search paradigm: this experimental approach is common in attention research; visually distracting stimuli and longest stimuli - locate the target stimuli among several distracting stimuli as quickly as possible

Gestalt: is a form of psychology highlightening our tendency to assemble individual pieces of info into meaningful whole

Feature maps: these form the entire field of view for characteristics of a certain stimulus, such as one card for red or one for horizontal

master map of position: all feature maps are linked to the master map

Visual search within the map system: 2 stages: 1.a specific spatial position within the field of view is searched for by activating the specific spot within the master map and all feature maps; identification by long-term memory info; 2.Searching for a specific feature and its position leads to an activation of all positions, the target is the most active

Pop-out-effect: the search time is short if the target stimulus differs by only one feature and catches the eye, Treisman suspected that this search is based on parallel preconscious processes

Guided Search Model: Wolfe proposed a main map together with many feature maps; they assumed a location-based main map of activation that controls the focus of attention and directs it to the location that shows the highest activation; 2 mechanisms determine how activity is distributed in the main map: 1.Objects that are different from other objects (salient) have a strongly activated position in the main map -  draw attention to themselves 2.The subject can use cognitive control to weigh certain feature maps more heavily than others so that these are pre-activated and preferentially transferred to the master map

Neglect Syndrome: neuropsychological phenomenon in which people suffer from injury to the right parietal lobe of the brain results in a neurological disorder known as "hemi-spatial neglect". Affects attention abilities; patients who suffers from it fails to deal with anything on the left side although the damage has occurred to the right side (contralateral); patients ignore the entire side of their body and the visual field - there is no problem with the patients perception or motor skills

Change blindness: relevant to visual perception, it describes the evenet of changing a visual stimulus without the viewer noticing. We can only perceive small segment of our present environment, it is necessary to integrate various spatial and temporal info so we can get a picture of our surroundings and orientate ourselves. Change blindness is a limitation in our capacity to code, store and compare visual info; increases normal eye movements

Saccades: refers to a quick eye movement that changes the focus of gaze from one section of the visual field to another

Flicker paradigm: is a procedure that involves the presentation of an image to participants for half a second followed by an image showing modified version of same object. Participants instructed to observe the flickering display and assess what changes have been made. it took 10-20 seconds to notice change

Attentional Blink: if two target stimuli are presented 300-500 milliseconds apart first target stimulus is usually recognized without issue the second normally not identified. If the two stimuli presented right after each other it can be processed and recognized together

Inattentional Blindness: Experiment: 2 basketball team 3-3 players, 2 unexpected events (gorilla, umbrella) 5 seconds. Participants instructed to watch the game and count the sum of all passes, 46% did not noticed the unexpected events. When visual attention is divided, the probability of discovering an unexpected object depends on it similarity to other objects as well as the difficulty of the primary observational task the subject must complete. There is no conscious perception without focused attention.

Consciousness: refers to the awareness of one's thoughts, feelings and experiences (internal, external) at any given time. It is what creates our reality and our sense of the "self “through the process of becoming aware of what we are doing and why, and aware that others are aware

Function of consciousness: is critical in controlling our actions, lets people reflect on things and events, help us to integrate and combine numerous and different pieces of info

Social functions of consciousness: refers to the way human consciousness serves to better understand others, predict their behavior and ultimately influence them

Out-of-body experiences: one's own conscious perception and others are based on the same neural mechanism can be confusing as far as the source of perception is concerned, and can create out-of-body experiences which is a phenomenon in which people have the feeling of being outside or detached from their own body.

Illusory Reduplication: in this form of illusory experience, the person perceives another body or self as their own

Illusory self-location: this usually means the distortion of one's feeling for the position of their body in space

Illusory perspective: this refers to shifts in perspective

Illusory agency: the sense of agency is understood as the ability to recognize oneself as the agent or originator of a behavior or thought, which in this case is based on an illusion

Episodic Memory: describes the memory of everyday events that can be explicitly described. This type of memory function involves the compilation of previous individual experiences that took place at a specificplace and moment.

Priming: is a pre-stimulus that is often unconscious, affects our perception, and makes us more responsive

Response and semantic Priming: subliminal stimuli such as flashes of images or words, are not consciously perceived because they are below the absolute threshold but they reach out visual cortex where they prime our perception, reaction and thinking

Response Priming: the reaction to a target stimulus is accelerated by a previously shown priming stimulus that is linked to the same reaction

Semantic Priming: the reaction to a target stimulus is facilitated by prior priming with a semantically related priming stimulus

Superficial forward processing: unconscious form of processing, the stimulus is only able to activate a limited number of brain areas

Deep forward processing: activates both lower and higher visual areas and the associated motor centers. Unconsciously process because of its forward directed nature

Superficial recurrent processing: restricted to a limited number of visual areas and leads to consciousperception of many parts and objects on scene while conscious is unable to influence behavior, likely quickly pushed out by other stimuli

Deep Current Processing: occurs whenever a stimuli can induce a wide-ranging recurrent interaction involving the full range on neural structures , as a result the stimulus is accessible for cognitive processing

Circadian Rhythm: with the help of our internal clock our body adapts to the day-night rhythm. Sleeping brain has its own rhythm following 4 stages of sleep, the typical night's sleep involves 6 sleep cycles but not every sleep cycle has the same duration. 1 cycle roughly 90 minutes

NREM-1 sleep: 1 stage, transition from relaxed wakefulness to drifting into sleep; flashing images and feeling of floating or falling; between 1-7 minutes

NREM-2 sleep: 2 stage; 20-25 minutes long, periodic, rampant, rhythmic brainwave activity called sleep spindles, relatively easily woken

NREM-3 sleep: manifest itself in slow delta waves, last about 30-40 munities, difficult to wake up

REM sleep: after an hour falling asleep there is an emergence from deep sleep and return to NREM-2; this is followed by entering REM sleep, lasts 10-60 minutes, rapid eye movements, general internal physiological excitement(rapid heartbeat and breathing), dreaming occurs, relatively easy to wake up

Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory: combination of behaviorism and cognitive theories, learning takes place by watching models perform an action, they simply observe to learn by developing self-regulation. 4 key points: learning through models, self-efficacy, reciprocal causation, self-regulation

Allport: "selection for action “is a term that emphasizes the biological necessity to selectively plan and choose a particular object for action, selection is crucial for both perception and action

Bandura: Social learning theory, significance of observing, modelling behavior; Bobo doll; 4 process: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

Bernard Weiner: Attribution Theory of Motivation: involves 3 principles 1:attribution is a 3 stage process = behavior is observed, labelled as intentional, attributed to internal and external causes, 2: relates to achievement, attributed to effort, skill, task difficulty, luck 3: causal dimensions: of behavior which are locus of control, stability, controllability. The theory offers a method to examine and understand motivation in learning and academic settings, explores reasons behind certain events.

Bower: Semantic Network Theory: each emotion corresponds to a special node within our memory and memories of events associated with emotion

Bowlby: John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory: infants attachment system is designed to ensure closeness and security from the caregiver using attachment behaviors to encourage parents to be caring

Broadbent: Broadbent's Filter Modul of Attention/Bottleneck Theory: is suggest that people have a limited amount of attentional resources that they can use at one time; sensory info and stimuli are somehow filtered so that only the most important info is perceived and enters the working memory, too many stimuli can create a bottleneck situation

Cannon Bard: Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: stimuli-psychological changes-emotion simultaneously and independently

Clark  Hull: Drive-Reduction Theory: motivation as an attempt to minimize bodily or physiological discrepancies, drive is an inner motivational state presented as a bodily need, any deviation from homeostatic state elevates arousal and bodily needs

Damasio: Somatic Marker Hypothesis: emotional bodily responses can influence decision making unconsciously by drawing attention to negative outcomes-deliver advantageous choice

Darwin: evolutionary biology research; observation, decoding, cross-cultural; Universality Hypothesis

Deci, Ryan: Self-Determination Theory: suggest that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation strongly influence and shape human identity and behavior

Elkman: 7 basic types of emotion (anger, fear, sadness, disgust, contempt, surprise, joy)

Epictetus: Greek stoic philosopher: believed that humans are not responsible for the ideas that reach their conscious awareness, their responsibility lies in the way they utilize that knowledge

Eriksen: Eriksen Flanker Task: consist of a series of tools designed to examine a series of tasks to examine selective attention and inhibition. The test involves a target plaud in the center of a screen bordened by nontarget stimuli. 3 kinds of nontarget stimuli: 1 A congruent stimulus: nontarget has the same direction as target stimuli, 2 Incongruent stimulus or incompatible node: nontarget has the opposite direction as target, 3 A neutral stimuli has neither the same or the opposite direction

Eyesenck: personality is a two-dimensional construct, introversion VS extroversion

Fechner: absolute threshold: minimum amount of stimulus required for us to perceive a stimulus; lowest possible intensity of stimulus

Feldman: Two-dimensional structural model of emotion: Positive affect-high activation: Exited; Positive affect-moderate activation: Pleased; Positive affect - Low activation: Tranquil; Negative affect - High activation: Sad; Negative affect - Moderate activation: Annoyed; Negative affect - Low activation: Sluggish

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation: 3 level of consciousness: unconscious mind, outside of awareness, preconscious mind info we are not currently aware, conscious mind current state of awareness; personality 3 parts: ID: instincts/unconscious/pleasure principle, superego: 3 levels of consciousness/moral integrity, ego: preconscious and conscious/reality principle/meet instinctive desires of the ID and realistic approach of superego

Gross: emotional regulation

Graziano, Kastner: describe consciousness as a social perceptual machinery; people are equipped with unique neural mechanisms that allow them to behave a socially intelligent manner, predict behavior. Their model posits that conscious awareness and its perceptual property are represented in the brain's attentional neuronal state when social perceptual machinery originates, creating the mechanisms we employ to perceive others as well as our own state of consciousness

Hans Selye: General Adaptation Syndrome: body shows a psychological response to stress, 3 stages: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, stage of exhaustion

James-Lange: James-Lange Theory: stimulus produces psychological changes which cause emotion

John Atkinson: Theory of Achievement Motivation: focuses on the role of secondary motives; every human expression or behavior is a result of an impulse, motivation (drive) and a need that influences behavior. The theory derives from cognitivism, it suggests that learning is a complex inner cognitive process that influences our knowledge and behavior. Achieving a goal involves the interactions of 3 elements: Motives, expectations, anticipated incentive value of the task ahead

Klüver, Bucy: lesion studies: damage to temporal lobe-emotion processing, Klüver-Bucy Syndrome:neurological condition caused by brain injury, amygdala

Kurt Lewin: Field Theory: assumes that behavior is a function of both the person and the environment.B=f(P/E), behavior determined by the interaction between one's distinctive characteristics and experiences and the environment. Change and outcome depends on the interaction between an individual and the forces in their environment. 3 stages when change happens: 1 Unfreeze: forces for change become greater than forces resisting change 2: change: situation assessed reached desired change, 3 Refreeze: behaviors evaluated if tehy are accomplished the desired change they become established

Krümmenacher, Müller: Dimension weighting: attention-based weighting of dimensional processing modules in which object features, such as color, orientation and size are processed separately; processing capacity available for the individual dimensions is limited, stronger weighting of the color dimension leads to facilitation of color processing of the object but at the expense of a shape processing

Lamme: Lamme's Theory of Consciousness: there is a difference between feedforward and recurrent processing of stimuli, a single forward pass leads to the change in a process based on its expected outcome. Processing conscious behavior is based on backward interaction that is mediated via feedback loops and activated by both lower and higher sensory brain areas.

Latham, Locke: Goal Setting Theory of Motivation: with right goals motivation tend to grow, motivation does not increase every time people set goal; need clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback and task complexity

Lazarus: transactional stress model: all people reacted in the same way to potentially stressful events; cognitive evaluation 3 steps: assessment of the stressor as possible, irrelevant, or dangerous based on one's own needs, damage or loss already happened if there is a threat or challenge

Libet: Libet was able to prove that our brain decides to initiate or prepare to initiate an act before there is any subjective awareness that such a decision has taken place. Our brain makes decision before we do actions.

Lohaus: attachment behavior ensure the child the closeness of caregivers

McClelland: motivation can be described as a process involving conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) elements

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: research on flow experience to understand intrinsically motivated activities-artists completely absorbed by activity, can lead to anxiety, little opportunity - boredom

Neisser: Neisser's Object Based Theory: assumes that visual attention is based on two successive stages: 1.first stage: Preconscious or Pre-attentive and divides the visual field into discrete objects based on the features of their external form (Gastalt), such as spatial proximity, similarity closedness; 2.second stage: designed to analyze a specific object more closely; limits our ability to see multiple objects at once

ç: Norman and Shallice Model: automatic processes are based on action routines that are only conscious until they are mastered, voluntary and conscious actions are based on: planning or decisions, inspection, poorly learned or involve new behavioral sequences, rated as dangerous or technically demanding, require overcoming a strong temptation or habitual response

Parkinson, Totterdell: 162 conscious affect-regulating strategies

Pavlov: classical conditioning

Phineas Gage: brain injury-railroad worker, lack of everyday judgement and decision making abilities; language, memory, general intellect intact

Plutchik: 8 basic emotions (joy, sadness, anger, fear, trust, disgust, surprise, anticipation)

Posner: Spatial Cueing Paradigm: related to spatial orientation; takes place when attention is directed to a specific place because of the presence of a specific stimuli. The process of drawing attention called cueing. People are faster to detect objects in location where a notable stimulus was previously presented. Posner compared visual attention with light reflex, he assumed that the spatial orientation of attention is controlled by 3 mechanisms: 1 Move mechanism: causing attention to shift from one place to another 2 Disengage mechanism, necessary to disengage attention before it is shifted from its previous location 3 Engage Mechanism, which in turn binds the attention to the new place after its shifts

Rescorla-Wagner: delta v is salience and 0 or 1, lambda is the max conditioning possible for US, v is a total strength of all stimuli present

Rubicon: Rubicon Model of Action phases: offers an insight into choices people make, their actions and the way they reflect on their actions, the course of action is divided into 4 constative phases; 1 pre-decision phase: prior to deciding when different choices are evaluated considering advantages and disadvantages, 2 post-decision phase: after the decision and course of action have been made to reach selected goal, 3 action phase: involves the goal having been reached, 4 post-action phase: an evaluation of the decision takes place

Schachter-Singer: Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion: human psychology and cognition combined generate emotion-arousal, cognition

Shifrin, Shneider: Dual-Process Framework: attention is divided into 2 processes: 1 automatic is quick, autonomous, spontaneous, error free and not driven by conscious awareness; 2 controlled processing is slow, susceptible to error, adaptable, driven by conscious awareness, useful in novel situation.  Controlled process needs undivided attention. It is possible to hold two automatic processes.

Simon, Levin: FAILED Experiment: classic manifestation of change blindness (tourist asking for direction - change of tourist - not noticed)

Skinner: operant conditioning; Skinner Box: +/- consequences effect future behavior

Thorndike: Law of Effect: + consequences of action stay, - likely to stop

Treisman: Treisman's Attention Model: similar to the bottleneck theory, the main differences that Treisman believed that selective filter does not eliminate unnecessary sensory input, but instead weakens it

Weber: Weber's Law: states that a noticeable difference between two weights has a constant relationship to the size of reference weight. The greater the strength of the stimulus, the more it will need to change for us to pick up the difference.

William James: attention is based on conscious and rational choices, it focuses on specific stimuli while isolating other interruptive stimuli, people manage to effectively deal with an oversee the selected stimuli without coherent perception would not be possible

Late selection Model of Attention - Deutsch and Deutsch - opposes Broadbent's filter theory to a certain extent, it states filtering process comes after all info has been processed then the filter selects which chunk of info received and processed will enter conscious awareness

Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation – Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation: 3 level of consciousness: unconscious mind, outside of awareness, preconscious mind info we are not currently aware, conscious mind current state of awareness; personality 3 parts: ID: instincts/unconscious/pleasure principle, superego: 3 levels of consciousness/moral integrity, ego: preconscious and conscious/reality principle/meet instinctive desires of the ID and realistic approach of superego

Signal Detection Theory - Assumes that there is no absolute threshold but one's perception of a signal depends on numerous factors, such as alertness, motivation, and level of tiredness at the specific moment. In general SDT postulates that a signal (stimulus) can be present or not and the observer can recognize it or not. Possible results when testing: hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection.  Hit: stimulus present and recognized, miss: stimulus present not recognized, false alarm: stimulus absent but recognized, correct rejection: no stimulus not recognized

Attention-consciousness Model – Cohen - information (input) can only reach conscious perception through attention

Processing Theory of Consciousness – Lamme - there is a difference between feedforward and recurrent processing of stimuli: feedforward relates to the change in a process based on its expected outcome. Processing a visual stimuli, a single forward pass leads to unconscious processing and causes reflexive behavior. Conscious behavior is based on backward interaction that is mediated via feed back loops and activated by both lower and higher sensory brain areas. 4 types of processing: 1.Superficial forward processing: unconscious form of processing, the stimulus is only able to activate a limited number of brain areas; 2.Deep forward processing: activates both lower and higher visual areas and the associated motor centers. Unconsciously process because of its forward directed nature. 3.Superficial recurrent processing: restricted to a limited number of visual areas and leads to conscious perception of many parts and objects on scene while conscious is unable to influence behavior, likely quickly pushed out by other stimuli; 4:.Deep Current Processing: occurs whenever a stimuli can induce a wide-ranging recurrent interaction involving the full range on neural structures , as a result the stimulus is accessible for cognitive processing

Global Workspace Theory - Baars, Franklin -  It is a psychological construct arguing that perceptual contents, which are acted upon by localized processors, only become conscious when they are widely broadcasted to other processors across the brain.

Global Neuronal Workspace Theory – Dehaene - people become aware information consciously because of selective attention; conscious awareness relates to cohesive and synchronal neuronal brain activity

Theory of Mind - Premack and Woodruff, - refers to the ability to attribute mental states both to ourselves and to others; fundamental aspects of social interaction, human ability to foresee, understand, and explain the behavior of people around us