Imperial China Notes
Qin Dynasty and Imperial Rule
In 221 B.C.E., Prince Zheng of Qin became the first emperor, naming himself Qin Shi Huangdi.
China was typically ruled by emperors or empresses thereafter.
Emperors designated a relative, often a son, as their successor, establishing a dynasty.
The Mandate of Heaven was the basis for a ruler's legitimacy; Heaven chose a dynasty to rule.
Heaven supported a dynasty as long as the emperor ruled justly.
Natural disasters indicated Heaven's displeasure, potentially leading to the emperor's overthrow.
Dynasties and Their Impact
Each dynasty brought about change for the people of medieval China.
The Han dynasty experienced a golden age of expansion and prosperity for over 400 years.
By 220 C.E., the Han dynasty lost power, leading to disunity and conflict.
The Sui and dynasty later reunified China.
Decline of the Han Dynasty
The Han dynasty, like previous dynasties utilized a large bureaucracy of government officials.
Corruption within the bureaucracy led to the Han dynasty's decline around 220 C.E..
Corrupt officials and relatives seized control and caused high taxes and forced labor.
Banditry increased, and warlords opposed the emperor, weakening the government.
Small farmers suffered under high taxes and were forced to give half their produce to landlords.
Farmers went into debt, lost their land, and became laborers.
Rebellions arose as people believed the Han dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven.
China broke apart into separate kingdoms, similar to Europe after the fall of Rome.
Nomadic invaders ruled the north, while short-lived dynasties ruled the south.
Sui and Tang Dynasties
In 589, the northern state of Sui conquered the south and reunified China. (Sui Wen and Sui Yang)
Sui Wen: The founder of the Sui Dynasty, he is known for his efforts to restore stability and introduce major reforms in governance and infrastructure.
Sui Yang: The second emperor of the Sui Dynasty, famous for his extravagant projects and ultimately contributing to the dynasty's decline.
The Sui dynasty established a new central government but was short-lived due to heavy taxes.
In 618, Li Yuan declared himself emperor, establishing the Tang dynasty.
Tang rulers strengthened the central government and expanded influence over outlying areas.
Unified China experienced wealth and power for nearly 300 years under the Tang dynasty.
Song Dynasty and Scholar-Officials
Under Song emperors, scholar-officials were highly valued.
The Song dynasty relied on civil service exams to create a meritocracy with more candidates.
Neo-Confucianism, a blend of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, influenced the exams.
Confucian scholar Zhu Xi's "Four Books" became the basis for civil service exam study in 1190.
Confucius taught five key relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, older and younger sibling, husband and wife, friend and friend.
These relationships have hierarchical elements, with superiors being kind and inferiors showing respect and obedience.
Song emperors believed Confucian-trained officials would be rational and moral, maintaining order.
People from lower classes could become scholar-officials by attending state-supported schools and universities.
The journey to becoming a scholar official was rigorous:
Passing local tests allowed eligibility for the imperial exam.
The imperial exams included essays, poems, and answers on political and social issues based on Confucian ideas.
Exam conditions were controlled to prevent cheating, including isolation and paper duplication.
Only a small proportion of candidates passed the exams.
Those who passed waited years for appointments far from their hometown.
Officials could move up in rank after three years.
Scholar-officials enjoyed privileges like tax exemptions and military service avoidance.
Mongol Rule (Yuan Dynasty)
In the 13th century, Mongols conquered most of Asia, capturing the Chinese capital in 1276.
By 1279, the last Song emperor died fleeing from Mongol invaders.
Mongol leader Kublai Khan became emperor of China and established the Yuan dynasty.
China was under Mongol rule from 1279 to 1368.
Mongol society in China was divided into four classes:
Mongols.
Foreigners who were friends of Mongols (Tibetans, Persians, Turks, Central Asians, many of whom were Muslims).
Northern Chinese.
Southern Chinese.
Changes Under Mongol Rule
Kublai Khan discontinued civil service exams because he felt Confucian learning was unnecessary and didn't want to rely on Chinese officials.
He appointed trusted Mongols to important positions, including relatives.
Due to a shortage of qualified Mongols, foreigners, including Europeans, were appointed to government positions.
Chinese scholars served mainly as teachers and minor officials, though some clerks rose to prominence.
The absence of the examination system led to a shortage of capable administrators.
The Mongols restored the exam system in 1315 but favored Mongol and non-Chinese candidates.
Internal fighting, greed, and corruption weakened the Mongol government.
Native Chinese populations grew increasingly hostile toward Mongol rule.
Rebellions in the 1350s and 1360s led to the collapse of the Mongol dynasty in 1368.
The Chinese reestablished their government under the Ming dynasty.
Ming Dynasty and the Civil Service System
Under Ming emperors, civil service exams were reinstated.
The civil service system provided a well-organized government.
Education emphasized moral behavior, justice, kindness, loyalty, proper conduct, and family importance.
These values unified Chinese culture.
The system allowed ambitious, hardworking men from poor backgrounds to become officials.
Officials were trained and talented, rather than just rich or related to the emperor.
The civil service system may have hindered progress by not testing science, math, or engineering knowledge.
Confucian scholars had little respect for merchants, business, and trade.
Confucians considered merchants the lowest class because they bought and sold goods instead of producing them.
Under the Ming, trade and business were not encouraged.
The bureaucracy became rigid, contributing to the Ming dynasty's fall in 1644.
Agricultural Changes During the Song Dynasty
Agricultural changes were a major reason for economic growth.
Rice production increased significantly, along with improved farming methods.
Farmers moved to the fertile basins of the Chang Jiang in southern China.
Reasons for Agricultural Changes
Wars and attacks from Mongolian tribes drove landowners south during the Tang dynasty.
Southern China continued to grow under the Song dynasty.
By 1207, about 65 million people lived in the south, compared to 50 million in the north.
Northern China cultivated wheat and millet due to the cold, dry climate.
The southern climate was warm and wet, ideal for cultivating rice.
Rice crops faced challenges such as drought and typhoons.
Rice took five months to mature from planting to harvest.
Champa rice, a new variety from Vietnam, was drought-resistant and matured in two months.
Farmers could plant at least two crops of rice each year, causing rice production to boom.
Agricultural Technology and Practices
New farming techniques and tools increased production.
Improved plows and harrows prepared fields for planting more easily.
Farmers used fertilizer to increase crop yields.
Chain pumps irrigated land near lakes, marshes, and rivers.
Terraces were created on hillsides to grow rice.
Flat areas called paddies were used to grow rice.
Elaborate irrigation systems crisscrossed the paddies.
Water buffaloes pulled plows and harrows to level the fields.
Young rice plants were transplanted to the paddy.
Rice paddies had to be constantly watered and drained using dams, dikes, gated channels, and chain pumps.
Peasants also grew tea, cotton, and sugar, as well as mulberry trees for silkworms.
Agricultural Landscape in Southern China
Small farms covered every bit of suitable land.
Terraced hillsides stretched as far as the eye could see.
Water buffaloes pulled plows and harrows to prepare the fields.
Workers transplanted young rice plants in straight rows.
Rice was harvested by hand.
Rice paddies were constantly watered and drained.
Dams, dikes, gated channels, and chain pumps helped to move water.
Peasants also grew tea, cotton, and sugar.
Results of Agricultural Changes
The shift to growing rice increased food production.
Abundant food supported a larger population.
China's population grew to more than 100 million people.
Peasants could take time away from farming to weave silk, cotton cloth, and other products.
Rice farmers could market their surplus rice.
Landowners became rich enough to buy luxury items.
All these changes encouraged the growth of trade.
Growth of Trade and Commerce
Trade and commerce were already underway during the Tang dynasty.
Tang emperors eased restrictions on merchants and actively promoted trade.
Products like rice, silk, tea, porcelain, and jade traveled along trade routes to India, Arabia, and Europe.
Under the Song, business activity blossomed even more.
Reasons for Growth in Trade and Commerce
Wealthy landowners were eager to buy luxuries.
The demand for luxuries encouraged trade and increased the number of artisans.
Water transportation helped commerce.
A vast network of rivers and canals connected different parts of China.
Farmers in central China could ship their rice north along the Grand Canal.
Moving goods by water was cheaper and faster than by road.
Innovations in navigation helped increase foreign and overseas trade.
Navigational charts and diagrams, along with the magnetic compass, made it easier for sailors to keep to their routes on long voyages.
People needed currency for buying and selling.
The government minted huge numbers of copper coins.
Moneylenders began issuing paper money to merchants.
The government printed paper money in large quantities.
The increase in currency further spurred the growth of commerce.
Characteristics of China's Commercial Growth
Market towns were crowded with barges loaded with rice and other goods.
Barges were sailed, rowed, or pushed along with long poles.
Oxcarts and pack animals trudged along the roads and over the bridges that cross the canal.
Peasants sold surplus crops and animals, as well as items they had made at home, such as silk and charcoal.
Merchants set up small shops on the streets and bridges.
Street peddlers sold goods from the packs they carried.
Deposit shops traded long strings of copper coins for paper money.
Junks loaded with silk, ceramics, sugar, and rice departed for Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, India, the East Indies, and Africa.
They returned loaded with indigo, spices, silver, ivory, and coral.
Paper Money and Government Control
Paper money was easier to carry around but had no intrinsic value.
The government controlled the amount of paper money.
Counterfeiters who printed fake money were threatened with decapitation.
Results of Growth in Trade and Commerce
The merchant class grew.
Business brought increased prosperity, giving China the highest living standard in the world at that time.
Many commercial centers grew into big cities.
Urbanization increased during the Song dynasty.
Chinese cities became the largest in the world.
Urbanization in China
The city of Hangzhou had perhaps 2 million people within its walls.
European cities of this period had no more than 50,000 residents.
Reasons for Urbanization
The growth of commerce encouraged people to move to cities and towns.
There, people could make a living as merchants, traders, peddlers, and shopkeepers.
Landowners left their farms because they preferred the shops and social life of the cities.
More people brought still more opportunities for business and jobs, and cities grew even larger.
Characteristics of Cities
Cities were crowded, exciting places.
Streets were filled with rich landowners, merchants, traders, moneylenders, and visiting peasants.
Signs in the market area identified the goods sold in each shop.
Musicians, jugglers, acrobats, and puppeteers performed outdoors.
People enjoyed the theater and visited friends in restaurants and teahouses.
Food vendors carried trays of food on their heads.
Foot Binding
Wealthy young girls tightly bound their feet with cloth so that their toes were bent under.
These girls grew up to have tiny feet, which the Chinese considered beautiful but they had great difficulty walking.
This custom of foot binding first became common during the Song dynasty and marked a decline in the status of women.
Some followers of Confucianism taught that women were inferior to men.
Women of the middle and upper classes in cities did not work.
In the countryside, women enjoyed greater status because they did participate in work on farms.
Results of Urbanization
Cities changed the way many ordinary Chinese lived.
Cities were vibrant centers of activity for buying and selling, hobbies, and board games.
Public-works projects provided employment for many city dwellers.
Urbanization also stimulated culture, giving artists an audience of wealthy, leisured people.
Paintings produced during the Song period are considered some of the finest in the world.
Innovations in Transportation
Several Chinese inventions made exploration and travel safer and faster.
Improving Travel by Sea
The Chinese developed the first compass as early as the 3rd century B.C.E.
The first Chinese compasses were pieces of a magnetic mineral called lodestone.
Earth itself is like a giant magnet with north and south poles.
Lodestone is influenced by Earth's magnetic poles.
If you put a piece of lodestone on wood and float it in a bowl of water, the lodestone will turn until it points in a north-south direction.
Europeans also developed a compass using lodestone.
The Chinese replaced the lodestone with a steel needle because they learned that rubbing a needle with lodestone made the needle act in the same way as the lodestone.
A needle in a compass gave a more accurate reading than a piece of lodestone.
By the time of the Song dynasty, the Chinese were using magnetic compasses for navigation at sea.
Compasses made long sea voyages possible because sailors could figure out directions even without a landmark or a point in the sky to steer by.
The compass remains an important navigational tool today.
Boat Construction
The Chinese made sea travel safer by improving boat construction.
By the 2nd century C.E., they started building ships with separate, watertight compartments.
Builders divided the ships into sections and sealed each section with caulk, a sealant that repels water.
If there were a leak, it would be isolated, and the other compartments would not fill with water, keeping the ship afloat.
Modern shipbuilders still use this technique.
Paddle Wheel Boats
Within China, people often traveled by boat on rivers or across lakes.
Paddlewheel boats made this type of travel much faster.
The Chinese adapted this idea by arranging a series of paddles in a wheel.
People walked on a treadmill to turn the paddlewheel, which in turn moved through the water, moving the boat forward.
The Romans had also developed a paddlewheel-powered boat, but it was powered by oxen, which are not as easy to direct as people.
The people-powered paddlewheel boats allowed the Chinese to travel much faster on rivers and lakes and were also much easier to maneuver than other types of watercraft.
People still use this type of boat for recreational activities.
Canal Locks
The Chinese improved transportation by developing a new type of canal lock during the Song dynasty.
The Chinese used canals extensively to connect the many rivers.
The surrounding land sloped up, parts of canals were at different levels.
Before the improved locks were invented, the Chinese had to drag their boats up stone ramps to reach water at a higher level, a difficult task that could damage the boats.
The new canal locks solved this problem.
The innovative new type of locks made canal travel much easier.
Locks could raise boats more than 100 feet above sea level.
Arched Bridges
The Chinese found ways to improve bridges.
A Chinese engineer completed a new type of arched bridge in 618 C.E..
Segmental arch bridges required less material to build and were stronger.
The segmental arch bridge design stretches over expressways around the world.
Chinese Advances in Industries
Some Chinese advances led to new industries.
The medieval Chinese made advances and innovations in the way they produced paper, print, tea, porcelain, and steel.
Paper
By the 2nd century C.E., the Chinese invented the art of papermaking.
The earliest Chinese paper was probably made from hemp and then the bark of the mulberry tree.
Later, the Chinese used rags.
Papermaking became an important industry in China.
For more than 500 years, the Chinese were the only people in the world who knew the secret of making paper.
From China, knowledge of papermaking traveled to Japan and across Central Asia.
Europeans probably first learned about this art after 1100.
Printing
The invention of paper made another key development possible: printing.
Around the 7th century, the Chinese invented woodblock printing.
The printer carved out the wood around the characters, leaving the characters raised on the wood.
To print from the block, the printer covered the characters with black ink, spread paper over the block, and smoothed the paper with a brush.
Some artists still use block printing today to create fine art prints.
By the 8th century, there was an entire woodblock printing industry in China.
Printers created religious and other works on scrolls.
In the 10th century, the Chinese started printing modern-style books with pages.
In the 11th century, during the Song dynasty, the Chinese invented movable type, which consists of separate blocks for each character.
Printers made their type by carving characters out of clay and baking them.
To print, they selected the characters they needed and placed them in an iron frame in the order they would appear on the page.
When the printing job was complete, the type could be removed from the frame and rearranged to use again.
With the invention of movable type, printers no longer had to create a new set of woodblocks for each item they printed.
This dramatically lowered the cost and labor of printing.
Written materials became more widely available, and advances in printing helped spread learning throughout China.
Tea
Historians have discovered from written accounts that the Chinese have been drinking tea since at least 2700 B.C.E.
By the 8th century C.E., tea had become a hugely popular everyday beverage that was enjoyed throughout China.
A famous writer, Lu Yu, wrote a book, Cha Jing (Tea Classic), describing how to cultivate, prepare, and drink tea.
Tea-plant cultivation became a major industry, often involving an entire community.
Workers dry the fresh tea leaves by leaving them out in sunlight for different numbers of days, depending on the variety of tea.
Porcelain
Porcelain, a type of fine pottery, is another Chinese invention.
Porcelain is made by combining clay with the minerals quartz and feldspar, and it is then baked in a kiln, or pottery oven, at very high temperatures.
The resulting pottery is white, hard, and waterproof.
Craftspeople learned how to paint pictures on porcelain and made colored glazes to decorate their work.
Porcelain making became a major industry in China.
Steel
The Chinese first made steel, a very useful metal, before 200 B.C.E.
Steel is made from iron, but it is less brittle than iron and easier to bend into different shapes.
The earliest Chinese steel was made from cast iron.
The Chinese were the first to learn how to make cast iron by melting and molding iron ore.
Blowing air into molten, or melted, cast iron causes a chemical reaction that creates steel, which is a great deal stronger than iron.
In the 1800s, the mass production of steel was crucial to the Industrial Revolution in the West.
Today, iron and steel making are among China's most important industries.
Gunpowder
The invention of gunpowder made new weapons possible.
The Chinese who first made gunpowder were alchemists, people who practiced a blend of science and magic known as alchemy.
Chinese alchemists experimented with a mineral called saltpeter, which they may have believed could extend life, they discovered that it could be used to make an explosive powder.
In 850 C.E., during the Tang dynasty, alchemists recorded a formula for gunpowder but warned others to avoid it because it was extremely dangerous.
By the 10th century, the Chinese had developed the first weapon that used gunpowder: the flamethrower.
Between the 11th and 14th centuries, the Chinese created many other weapons using gunpowder.
The Chinese used large bombs that were as explosive as modern bombs.
Around the same time, they developed weapons much like today's rifles and cannons.
By the early 1300s, travelers had brought the knowledge of gunpowder to Europe.
Rocket Technology
Rocket technology was developed in China during the Song dynasty.
Rockets were powered by a black powder made of saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur.
The rockets used to explore space today are based on principles discovered by the Chinese.
Inventions
The Chinese invented a number of everyday objects people use today, including game cards, paper money, and mechanical clocks.
Game cards were invented in China in about the 9th century.
The Chinese invented paper money in the late 8th or early 9th century.
By 1107, Song printers were using multiple wood blocks to print each bill.
The Chinese developed the first mechanical clock in about the 8th century.
Dripping water made the wheel turn.
Medicine and Disease Prevention
Chinese knowledge of medicine and disease prevention dates to ancient times.
The Chinese developed a way of fighting infectious diseases before the 1st century C.E..
During the Song dynasty, the Chinese discovered another way to prevent the spread of disease.
Sometime around the 10th century, the Chinese discovered how to inoculate people against smallpox, a dreaded infectious disease.
Chinese knowledge about smallpox inoculation eventually led to the development of drugs called vaccines.
Foreign Contacts
During the Tang dynasty (618–907), China welcomed contact with foreigners.
Traders and visitors brought new ideas, goods, fashions, and religions into the country.
Beginning in the Han dynasty, traders and visitors came to China by the Silk Road.
Traders also traveled by sea between China and Korea, Japan, Indonesia, and India.
Foreign contacts brought about much cultural exchange.
The Chinese sent their silk, porcelain, paper, iron, and jade along the trade routes, and in return, they imported ivory, cotton, perfumes, spices, and horses.
From India, the Chinese learned to make sugar from sugarcane and wine from grapes.
Changing Attitudes
Islam, Judaism, and Christianity were tolerated for a time.
Buddhism had come to China hundreds of years earlier, but it became a major part of Chinese life under the Tang dynasty.
Toward the end of the Tang dynasty, foreigners and their beliefs became less welcome in China.
The government placed restrictions on foreigners when the Uighurs began attacking China from across the border.
In cities, violence broke out against foreign merchants because many Chinese resented their prosperity.
The wealth of Buddhist monasteries also brought resentment.
In 843, the Tang government began seizing Buddhist property and forcing thousands of Buddhist monks and nuns to give up their way of life.
Yuan Dynasty
The vast Mongol empire stretched across Asia.
The Mongols developed a far-reaching maritime trade.
Thriving Trade and Cultural Exchange
Yuan leaders encouraged cultural exchange.
They set up stations along the Silk Road every 20 miles where traders could find food and a place to sleep.
Muslim merchant associations managed the Silk Road trade and traded Chinese silk and porcelain for medicines, perfumes, and ivory.
Christian missionaries wanted to convert the Chinese to Christianity.
Foreign Contacts
Foreigners enjoyed high status under the Yuan rulers, and foreign merchants, in particular, were given special privileges.
Kublai Khan appointed many visiting foreigners to official positions in his government.
The most famous was Marco Polo, a young Italian merchant and adventurer who traveled throughout China.
Under Kublai Khan, life was more pleasant for Mongols and foreigners than it was for the native Chinese.
They also disliked being ruled by foreigners, especially since a few foreign government officials were harsh and dishonest.
The Chinese eventually rebelled against the Yuan.
Ming Dynasty
From 1368 to 1644, the Ming dynasty ruled China.
Although foreign contacts continued, later Ming rulers tried to isolate China from foreign influences.
When ambassadors from the tributaries visited China, they had to kowtow before the emperor.
Zheng He was to display China's power, to give gifts, and to collect tribute.
Zheng He made seven expeditions between 1405 and 1433.
Zheng He's ships returned laden with precious cargo.
Turning Inward
When Zheng He died, in about 1434, a new emperor ruled China.
The dynasty turned inward.
Ming rulers wanted to protect their people from foreign influences, so they forbade travel outside China.
All contact between Chinese people and foreigners had to be approved by the government.
The Ming dynasty and its scholar-officials wanted a strongly unified state based on a single ruler and traditional values.
Peasant rebellions helped to bring down the government in 1644, ending the Ming dynasty.
The man who sent out the fleet was Emperor Chengzu, a bold and ambitious leader who wanted his people to explore the world and expand trade.
Later, when Zheng He served in the Chinese army, he showed a talent for strategy and commanded the respect and obedience of others. He also won Chengzu's complete trust.
Chengzu ordered merchants across China to supply trade goods for the expedition, including silk, cotton, wine, tea, silk robes, and porcelain.
Zheng He
Zheng He's ships were far more technologically advanced than were European ships of that time.
The key was the magnetic compass, an essential tool the Chinese invented in the 11th century.
The compass allowed the Chinese to steer their ships even under cloud cover.
Chinese sailors could also determine their latitude, or distance from the equator.
Each evening they took readings to find the North Star's position above the horizon.
Success in India.
Zheng He made a total of seven voyages of discovery.
Angered, he launched explosives over the walls of the city until finally Mogadishu's doors opened to him.
The spirit of Zheng He is alive and well.
During the 13th century, China was the largest state in the world.
Each community had an official who settled problems between people in the community.
These policies helped bolster trade in official trade cities, including Quanzhou.
Like porcelain, silk was another highly valued Quanzhou export that originated in China.
Chinese inventors developed the junk, a ship designed to sail long distances.