Untitled Flashcard Set

BISC 163 EXAM 3 MASTER STUDY GUIDE

Chapter 43 – The Nervous System

(Based on Dr. Nicole Lewis's PowerPoint and lecture objectives)

BIG PICTURE

The nervous system is the body's fast communication system.

Unlike the endocrine system (which uses hormones and can take minutes to hours), the nervous system uses electrical signals (action potentials) and chemical signals (neurotransmitters) to produce responses in milliseconds.

Functions:

Detect stimuli
Process information
Coordinate muscles
Regulate organs
Maintain homeostasis
Produce reflexes

Organization of the Nervous System

Nervous System
│
├── Central Nervous System (CNS)
│      Brain
│      Spinal Cord
│
└── Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
       │
       ├── Sensory (Afferent)
       │
       └── Motor (Efferent)
             │
             ├── Somatic
             └── Autonomic
                    │
                    ├── Sympathetic
                    └── Parasympathetic

Objective 1

Types of Nervous System Cells

There are two major cell types.

1. Neurons

Neurons are the functional cells of the nervous system.

They receive information

↓

Process information

↓

Send electrical signals

↓

Communicate with other neurons or muscles

The PowerPoint identifies neurons as the functional unit of the nervous system.

Parts of a Neuron

Dendrites
     ↓
Cell Body (Soma)
     ↓
Axon Hillock
     ↓
Axon
     ↓
Axon Terminals
     ↓
Synapse

Dendrites

Receive incoming information.

Think:

D = Detect

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains

nucleus
ribosomes
mitochondria

Responsible for maintaining the neuron.

Axon Hillock

MOST TESTED STRUCTURE

The axon hillock is the decision-making region.

It sums all excitatory and inhibitory signals.

If threshold is reached

↓

Action potential begins.

Axon

Conducts action potentials away from the cell body.

Some axons are over one meter long.

Axon Terminals

Contain neurotransmitter vesicles.

When an action potential arrives

↓

Neurotransmitters are released.

Synapse

Tiny space between neurons.

Electrical signal

↓

Chemical signal

↓

Electrical signal

Glial Cells (Neuroglia)

Unlike neurons,

glia do NOT conduct action potentials.

Instead, they support neurons.

The slides emphasize glia as supportive cells of the nervous system.

Astrocytes

Functions

support neurons
regulate ions
maintain blood-brain barrier
provide nutrients

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

Produce myelin.

One oligodendrocyte can myelinate many axons.

Schwann Cells (PNS)

Also produce myelin.

One Schwann cell wraps around one segment of one axon.

Microglia

Immune cells of the CNS.

Function

phagocytosis
remove debris
destroy pathogens

Ependymal Cells

Line ventricles.

Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Objective 2

Resting Membrane Potential

Definition

The resting membrane potential is the electrical difference across the membrane of a neuron when it is not sending an action potential.

Resting membrane potential:

−70 mV

Inside = negative

Outside = positive

The slides explain that membrane potential is maintained by ion gradients and the Na⁺/K⁺ pump.

Why Is the Inside Negative?

Three reasons:

1. Sodium-Potassium Pump

Uses ATP.

Moves

3 Na⁺ OUT

2 K⁺ IN

Result:

More positive charge leaves than enters.

Inside becomes negative.

2. Potassium Leak Channels

K⁺ leaks out.

Positive charge leaves.

Inside becomes even more negative.

3. Negative Proteins

Large proteins cannot leave.

They remain inside.

Negative charge stays inside.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Every ATP

↓

3 Na⁺ OUT

↓

2 K⁺ IN

This pump is electrogenic because it creates a charge difference.

Objective 3

Cell Membrane Proteins & Action Potentials

Three major membrane proteins:

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Maintains ion gradients.

Uses ATP continuously.

Leak Channels

Always open.

Mostly potassium leak channels.

Responsible for resting potential.

Gated Ion Channels

Open only when stimulated.

Three types are emphasized in the PowerPoint.

Voltage-Gated

Respond to voltage changes.

Essential for action potentials.

Ligand-Gated (Chemically Gated)

Open when neurotransmitters bind.

Found on dendrites and cell bodies.

Mechanically Gated

Respond to pressure or stretch.

Examples

touch receptors
hearing receptors

Action Potential

An action potential is a rapid reversal of membrane potential.

It is an all-or-none event.

If threshold is not reached

↓

No action potential.

If threshold is reached

↓

Full action potential occurs.

Stages of an Action Potential

1. Resting

-70 mV

Voltage-gated channels closed.

2. Threshold

Approximately

−55 mV

If reached

↓

Action potential begins.

3. Depolarization

Voltage-gated sodium channels open.

Na⁺ rushes IN.

Membrane becomes positive.

Peak ≈ +30 mV.

4. Repolarization

Na⁺ channels close.

Voltage-gated potassium channels open.

K⁺ leaves.

Cell becomes negative again.

5. Hyperpolarization

Too much potassium leaves.

Voltage becomes slightly below −70.

Eventually returns to resting potential.

Action Potential Diagram

Resting
↓

Threshold

↓

Depolarization
(Na+ IN)

↓

Peak

↓

Repolarization
(K+ OUT)

↓

Hyperpolarization

↓

Resting

Refractory Periods

Absolute Refractory

No second action potential possible.

Na⁺ channels are inactivated.

Relative Refractory

Another AP is possible

BUT

Requires stronger stimulus.

Saltatory Conduction

Occurs only in myelinated neurons.

Action potentials appear to "jump" from one Node of Ranvier to the next.

Benefits:

Faster conduction
Less ATP required

The PowerPoint highlights that action potentials jump along myelinated vertebrate axons.

Objective 4

Synaptic Transmission

Electrical signal reaches axon terminal

↓

Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open

↓

Calcium enters

↓

Vesicles fuse

↓

Neurotransmitter released

↓

Neurotransmitter crosses synapse

↓

Binds receptors

↓

New electrical signal begins

Important Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Functions

skeletal muscle contraction
autonomic nervous system

Broken down by

Acetylcholinesterase

Dopamine

Functions

movement
reward
motivation

Low dopamine

↓

Parkinson disease

Serotonin

Functions

mood
appetite
sleep

SSRIs work by blocking serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin in the synapse. The lecture specifically mentions reuptake and SSRIs.

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Makes neurons less likely to fire.

Glutamate

Main excitatory neurotransmitter.

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS.

Excitatory vs Inhibitory Signals

EPSP

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential

Depolarizes the membrane.

Moves toward threshold.

More likely to fire.

IPSP

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential

Hyperpolarizes the membrane.

Moves away from threshold.

Less likely to fire.

Temporal Summation

One neuron fires rapidly.

Multiple EPSPs add together over time.

Spatial Summation

Many neurons fire simultaneously.

Signals combine from different locations.

The axon hillock integrates both temporal and spatial summation to decide whether threshold is reached.

Clearing Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters must be removed so signaling can stop.

Methods:

Enzymatic breakdown
- Example: acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh.
Reuptake
- Neurotransmitter is transported back into the presynaptic neuron.
- Target of SSRIs.
Diffusion
- Neurotransmitter diffuses away from the synapse.

Objective 5

Chemicals That Alter Action Potentials

The slides note that some toxins bind ion channels and alter signaling.

Tetrodotoxin (TTX)

Blocks voltage-gated sodium channels.

No depolarization.

No action potentials.

Local Anesthetics (e.g., lidocaine)

Also block sodium channels.

Pain signals cannot propagate.

Botulinum Toxin (Botox)

Blocks ACh release.

Causes muscle paralysis.

Organophosphate Nerve Agents

Inhibit acetylcholinesterase.

ACh accumulates.

Continuous muscle stimulation followed by paralysis.

SSRIs

Block serotonin reuptake.

Increase serotonin concentration in the synaptic cleft.

Used to treat depression and anxiety.

Objective 6

Spinal Reflex

A spinal reflex is a rapid, automatic response processed by the spinal cord rather than the brain.

The response happens first; the brain becomes aware afterward.

The lecture emphasizes that some information is processed without the brain.

Reflex Arc

Stimulus

↓

Receptor

↓

Sensory Neuron

↓

Interneuron
(spinal cord)

↓

Motor Neuron

↓

Effector Muscle

↓

Response

Knee-Jerk Reflex

Patellar tendon tapped.
Quadriceps muscle stretches.
Muscle spindle receptors activate.
Sensory neuron sends impulse to spinal cord.
Motor neuron activates quadriceps.
Leg extends.

This is a monosynaptic reflex because there is only one synapse between the sensory and motor neuron.

High-Yield Exam Facts

Resting membrane potential = −70 mV.
Threshold ≈ −55 mV.
Na⁺ enters during depolarization.
K⁺ leaves during repolarization.
Na⁺/K⁺ pump moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in using ATP.
Myelin speeds conduction by saltatory conduction between Nodes of Ranvier.
Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels trigger neurotransmitter release.
EPSPs increase the chance of firing; IPSPs decrease it.
ACh is the primary neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction.
GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter; glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter.
Reflexes are coordinated by the spinal cord for a rapid response, minimizing reaction time.

do 46

BISC 163 EXAM 3 MASTER STUDY GUIDE

Chapter 46 – Muscles & Bones

(Based on Dr. Nicole Lewis's PowerPoint and lecture objectives)

BIG PICTURE

The muscular system works with the skeletal system to:

Produce movement
Maintain posture
Stabilize joints
Generate heat
Protect organs
Support breathing and circulation

The skeletal system:

Supports the body
Protects organs
Stores calcium and phosphorus
Produces blood cells
Acts as attachment points for muscles

Objective 1

Describe the Structure of Muscle Cells and Tissues

There are three muscle types:

Skeletal	Cardiac	Smooth
Voluntary	Involuntary	Involuntary
Striated	Striated	Non-striated
Long fibers	Branched	Spindle-shaped
Multinucleate	One nucleus	One nucleus
Attached to bones	Heart	Hollow organs

The lecture compares these three muscle types and their structural differences.

Skeletal Muscle Structure

A skeletal muscle is organized from largest to smallest:

Muscle
 ↓
Fascicle
 ↓
Muscle Fiber (cell)
 ↓
Myofibril
 ↓
Sarcomere
 ↓
Actin & Myosin

Muscle Fiber

Each muscle fiber is:

One very long cell
Multinucleated
Filled with myofibrils
Surrounded by the sarcolemma (cell membrane)

Myofibrils

Contain repeating contractile units called sarcomeres.

Sarcomere

The sarcomere is the functional unit of contraction.

One sarcomere extends:

Z line → Z line

Sarcomere Components

Thin Filament

Contains:

Actin
Troponin
Tropomyosin

Thick Filament

Contains:

Myosin

Myosin heads form cross-bridges with actin.

Bands

A Band

Dark

Contains:

Entire myosin filament

Does NOT change length during contraction.

I Band

Light

Contains only actin.

Gets shorter.

H Zone

Middle of sarcomere.

Contains only myosin.

Gets shorter.

Z Disc

Boundary of sarcomere.

Moves closer together during contraction.

Objective 2

Sliding Filament Theory

This is the most important muscle concept for the exam.

The filaments do NOT shorten.

Instead,

they slide past each other.

The PowerPoint emphasizes that all muscle cells contract using the sliding filament mechanism.

Steps of Muscle Contraction

Step 1

Action potential travels down motor neuron.

↓

Step 2

Acetylcholine (ACh) released at neuromuscular junction.

↓

Step 3

ACh binds receptors on muscle.

↓

Step 4

Action potential spreads across sarcolemma.

↓

Step 5

Action potential enters T-tubules.

↓

Step 6

DHP receptors activate ryanodine receptors.

↓

Step 7

Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca²⁺.

↓

Step 8

Ca²⁺ binds troponin.

↓

Step 9

Troponin changes shape.

↓

Step 10

Tropomyosin moves away from actin binding sites.

↓

Step 11

Myosin binds actin.

↓

Step 12

Power stroke occurs.

↓

Step 13

ATP binds myosin.

↓

Step 14

Cross-bridge detaches.

↓

Step 15

ATP is hydrolyzed.

↓

Step 16

Cycle repeats while Ca²⁺ and ATP are available.

The slides specifically show T-tubules spreading the action potential, calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and the role of ATP in contraction and relaxation.

Cross-Bridge Cycle

ATP binds myosin

↓

Myosin releases actin

↓

ATP hydrolysis

↓

Myosin head cocks

↓

Myosin binds actin

↓

Power stroke

↓

Repeat

Role of Calcium

Without calcium:

Tropomyosin blocks myosin-binding sites.

No contraction.

With calcium:

Troponin changes shape.

↓

Tropomyosin moves.

↓

Contraction begins.

Role of ATP

ATP is required for:

✔ Detaching myosin

✔ Cocking myosin head

✔ Calcium pumps

✔ Na⁺/K⁺ pumps

No ATP = no relaxation.

Rigor Mortis

Rigor mortis develops after death because:

ATP production stops.
Myosin heads cannot detach from actin.
Calcium leaks from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Cross-bridges remain locked.
Muscles become stiff until proteins begin to break down.

Objective 3

Compare Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle

Skeletal Muscle

Voluntary
Striated
Multinucleated
Attached to bones
Contracts only when stimulated by motor neurons

Cardiac Muscle

Heart only
Involuntary
Striated
Branched cells
Single nucleus
Connected by intercalated discs (containing gap junctions and desmosomes)
Pacemaker cells generate spontaneous action potentials

Smooth Muscle

Found in:

Intestines
Blood vessels
Bladder
Uterus

Characteristics:

No striations
Single nucleus
Involuntary
Does not use troponin
Uses calmodulin and myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK) to regulate contraction

The lecture specifically notes that smooth muscle does not use troponin and tropomyosin in the same regulatory way as skeletal muscle.

Comparison Table

Feature	Skeletal	Cardiac	Smooth
Voluntary	Yes	No	No
Striated	Yes	Yes	No
Nuclei	Many	One	One
Troponin	Yes	Yes	No
Pacemaker	No	Yes	No
Gap Junctions	No	Yes	Many

Objective 4

Factors Affecting Muscle Performance

1. ATP Availability

Muscles require ATP continuously.

ATP is needed for:

Cross-bridge release
Calcium transport
Ion pumps

Low ATP = fatigue and impaired contraction.

2. Muscle Fiber Type

Slow Oxidative (Type I)

Red
Many mitochondria
Many capillaries
Fatigue resistant
High endurance

Examples:

Marathon runners
Postural muscles

Fast Glycolytic (Type II)

White
Fewer mitochondria
Larger diameter
Fatigue quickly
Produce high force

Examples:

Sprinters
Weightlifters

The slides identify two major muscle fiber types with different performance characteristics.

3. Sarcomere Length

Maximum force occurs when actin and myosin overlap optimally.

Too stretched:

Few cross-bridges.

Weak contraction.

Too compressed:

Filaments interfere.

Also weak.

4. Summation

One twitch

↓

Another twitch before relaxation

↓

Greater force

5. Tetanus

Rapid stimulation

↓

Continuous contraction

↓

Maximum force.

Muscle Soreness

Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is caused primarily by microscopic muscle damage and inflammation, not by lactic acid. The PowerPoint explicitly notes this common misconception.

Objective 5

Skeletal Types and Muscle-Bone Interaction

Three major skeleton types:

Hydrostatic Skeleton

Examples:

Earthworms
Jellyfish

Uses fluid pressure for support.

Exoskeleton

Examples:

Insects
Crabs

Advantages:

Protection
Reduced water loss

Disadvantages:

Must molt to grow.

Endoskeleton

Examples:

Humans
Other vertebrates

Advantages:

Grows with body
Strong support
Muscle attachment

Muscle Attachments

Tendons

Connect:

Muscle → Bone

Ligaments

Connect:

Bone → Bone

Joints

Where two bones meet.

Allow movement.

The lecture highlights how bones and muscles are connected through joints, tendons, and ligaments.

Objective 6

Bone Structure and Bone Formation

Bone is a living connective tissue that is constantly remodeled.

Functions:

Support
Protection
Movement
Calcium storage
Blood cell production (red bone marrow)

The PowerPoint emphasizes that bone is dynamic, living tissue and develops from connective tissue.

Bone Cells

Osteoblasts

Function:

Build bone.

Secrete collagen and bone matrix.

Mnemonic: Blasts Build

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells.

Maintain existing bone.

Osteoclasts

Break down bone.

Release calcium into blood.

Mnemonic: Clasts Crush

Bone Matrix

Organic component:

Collagen (provides flexibility)

Inorganic component:

Calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite; provides hardness)

Bone Remodeling

Bone is constantly renewed.

Bone Formation

Osteoblast activity exceeds osteoclast activity.

Bone Resorption

Osteoclast activity exceeds osteoblast activity.

Ossification (Bone Formation)

Most bones form through endochondral ossification:

Hyaline cartilage model forms.
Blood vessels invade.
Osteoblasts replace cartilage with bone.
Growth plate allows lengthening.
Growth plate closes after puberty.

Calcium Regulation and Bone

Bone also serves as a calcium reservoir.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates osteoclast activity, increasing blood calcium.
Calcitonin promotes calcium deposition in bone, lowering blood calcium.

These endocrine concepts connect Chapter 39 and Chapter 46.

High-Yield Exam Facts

Sarcomere = Z line to Z line.
Thin filament = actin + troponin + tropomyosin.
Thick filament = myosin.
Calcium binds troponin, exposing myosin-binding sites on actin.
ATP is required for myosin detachment and calcium reuptake.
Rigor mortis occurs because ATP is depleted after death.
Skeletal muscle is voluntary and multinucleated; cardiac muscle is involuntary, branched, and connected by intercalated discs; smooth muscle is involuntary and uses calmodulin instead of troponin.
Slow oxidative fibers resist fatigue; fast glycolytic fibers produce greater force but fatigue quickly.
Tendons connect muscle to bone; ligaments connect bone to bone.

Osteoblasts build bone, osteoclasts resorb bone, and osteocytes maintain bone.
BISC 163 EXAM 3 MASTER STUDY GUIDE

Chapter 40 – The Immune System

Objective 1

Describe the General Features of the Immune System

The immune system is a network of:

White blood cells (leukocytes)
Lymphatic organs
Lymphatic vessels
Antibodies
Signaling molecules (cytokines)
Complement proteins

Its job is to protect the body against:

Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
Parasites
Cancer cells
Foreign chemicals (toxins)

The PowerPoint emphasizes that defenses can be divided into nonspecific (innate) and specific (adaptive) immunity.

Four Characteristics of Adaptive Immunity

1. Specificity

Each B cell and T cell recognizes one specific antigen.

Example:
A B cell that recognizes influenza will not recognize tetanus.

2. Diversity

Your body contains millions of different lymphocytes, each with a unique receptor.

This allows you to recognize almost any pathogen.

3. Memory

After infection:

Memory cells remain.

Second infection:

Faster response
Larger response
Usually no symptoms

4. Self-Tolerance

The immune system normally ignores your own tissues.

Loss of self-tolerance leads to autoimmune disease.

Immune Organs

Primary Lymphoid Organs

Bone Marrow

Functions:

Produces all blood cells
B cells mature here

Thymus

Function:

T cells mature here.

Mnemonic: T = Thymus = T cells

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

Lymph nodes
Spleen
Tonsils
Peyer's patches

These are where immune cells encounter antigens and become activated.

Objective 2

Innate (Nonspecific) Immunity

Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense.

Characteristics:

Present at birth
Rapid response
Same response each time
No memory

First Line of Defense

Skin

Tough physical barrier
Keratinized
Slightly acidic
Prevents pathogen entry

Mucous Membranes

Found in:

Nose
Mouth
Lungs
Digestive tract
Urinary tract

Trap pathogens in mucus.

Secretions

Tears

Contain:

Lysozyme

Breaks bacterial cell walls.

Saliva

Contains:

Lysozyme

Helps destroy bacteria.

Stomach Acid

pH ≈2

Kills most swallowed microbes.

Normal Microbiota

Beneficial bacteria compete with pathogens for nutrients and space.

Second Line of Defense

If pathogens enter tissues, immune cells respond.

Major innate cells:

Cell	Function
Neutrophils	Phagocytosis; first responders
Macrophages	Phagocytosis and antigen presentation
Dendritic Cells	Antigen presentation to T cells
NK Cells	Kill virus-infected and cancer cells
Mast Cells	Release histamine
Eosinophils	Kill parasites

Phagocytosis

Performed mainly by:

Neutrophils
Macrophages

Steps:

Pathogen recognized.
Cell surrounds pathogen.
Phagosome forms.
Lysosome fuses with phagosome.
Enzymes digest pathogen.
Debris is expelled or presented as antigen.

Inflammation

Inflammation is a local response to injury or infection.

The PowerPoint lists inflammation as a key nonspecific defense.

Steps

Injury

↓

Mast cells release histamine.

↓

Blood vessels dilate.

↓

Capillaries become leaky.

↓

White blood cells enter tissue.

↓

Neutrophils arrive first.

↓

Macrophages clean up debris.

↓

Healing begins.

Five Signs of Inflammation

Redness
Heat
Swelling
Pain
Loss of function

Complement System

A group of plasma proteins that:

Punch holes in bacteria (membrane attack complex)
Attract immune cells
Enhance phagocytosis (opsonization)

Objective 3

Adaptive (Specific) Immunity

Adaptive immunity develops after exposure to an antigen.

Characteristics:

Specific
Slower initially
Memory
Stronger upon re-exposure

Antigen

Any molecule capable of triggering an immune response.

Usually proteins or polysaccharides on pathogens.

Antibody

A protein made by plasma cells that binds specifically to an antigen.

Objective 4

Clonal Selection

Millions of B cells and T cells already exist.

Each has a unique receptor.

When an antigen enters:

↓

Only the matching lymphocyte binds.

↓

That lymphocyte divides rapidly.

↓

Produces identical clones.

↓

Some become effector cells.

↓

Some become memory cells.

This is similar to natural selection because the antigen "selects" the lymphocyte with the best-fitting receptor, which then reproduces.

Objective 5

Humoral vs Cell-Mediated Immunity

Humoral Immunity

Uses:

B cells

Produces:

Antibodies

Targets:

Extracellular pathogens

Cell-Mediated Immunity

Uses:

T cells

Targets:

Virus-infected cells

Cancer cells

Intracellular pathogens

Objective 6

B Cell Response

Step 1

Antigen enters body.

↓

B cell receptor binds antigen.

↓

Helper T cell activates B cell.

↓

Clonal expansion.

↓

Produces:

Plasma cells
Memory B cells

Plasma Cells

Produce antibodies.

Can release thousands of antibodies per second.

Memory B Cells

Remain for years or decades.

Responsible for rapid secondary responses.

Five Antibody Classes

The lecture includes these five immunoglobulin classes.

Antibody	Function
IgM	First antibody produced
IgG	Most abundant; crosses placenta
IgA	Mucus, saliva, tears, breast milk
IgE	Allergies and parasites
IgD	B-cell receptor

Antibody Functions

Antibodies:

Neutralize toxins and viruses
Agglutinate pathogens (clump them together)
Opsonize pathogens (coat them for easier phagocytosis)
Activate complement

Objective 7

T Cell Response

T cells recognize antigen only when it is displayed on MHC proteins.

MHC I

Found on:

Almost all nucleated cells.

Presents intracellular antigens to CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells.

MHC II

Found on:

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs):

Dendritic cells
Macrophages
B cells

Presents extracellular antigens to CD4⁺ helper T cells.

Helper T Cells (CD4)

Functions:

Activate B cells
Activate cytotoxic T cells
Release cytokines
Generate memory helper T cells

Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8)

Kill infected cells by releasing:

Perforin (creates pores)
Granzymes (induce apoptosis)

Objective 8

Vaccines

Vaccines expose the immune system to a harmless form of an antigen.

This stimulates:

B cells
T cells
Plasma cells
Memory cells

Later exposure to the real pathogen results in a faster, stronger immune response.

The PowerPoint also contrasts vaccination (active immunity) with antivenom (passive immunity).

Objective 9

Antibody Diversity

The body creates millions of antibodies through:

V(D)J Recombination

Random rearrangement of:

Variable (V)
Diversity (D)
Joining (J)

gene segments.

Additional diversity comes from:

Junctional changes
Somatic hypermutation
Class switching

Objective 10

Hypersensitivity and Autoimmunity

Hypersensitivity (Allergies)

An inappropriate immune response to harmless substances.

Examples:

Pollen
Dust mites
Peanuts

Mechanism:

Allergen → IgE → Mast cell → Histamine release → Allergy symptoms

Autoimmunity

Occurs when the immune system attacks self tissues.

The lecture notes that failure of clonal deletion allows self-reactive lymphocytes to survive.

Examples:

Disease	Target
Type 1 diabetes	Pancreatic β cells
Multiple sclerosis	Myelin
Rheumatoid arthritis	Joints
Lupus	Multiple organs
Hashimoto thyroiditis	Thyroid

HIV

HIV specifically infects CD4⁺ Helper T cells, weakening both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. As CD4⁺ T-cell numbers decline, the body becomes increasingly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Today 7:53 PM

give me where its found as well

Here's a study chart that includes where each gland is found, the hormones it secretes, and the main function.

Gland	Where It's Found	Hormone(s)	Main Function
Hypothalamus	Base of the brain, below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland	Releasing & inhibiting hormones, ADH, Oxytocin (made here)	Controls the anterior pituitary; maintains homeostasis (temperature, hunger, thirst). ADH and oxytocin are stored/released by the posterior pituitary.
Anterior Pituitary	Base of the brain, attached to the hypothalamus	TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, Prolactin, MSH, Endorphins/Enkephalins	"Master gland" that controls many other endocrine glands and growth.
Posterior Pituitary	Base of the brain, behind the anterior pituitary	Releases Oxytocin and ADH	Releases hormones made by the hypothalamus.
Pineal Gland	Near the center of the brain	Melatonin	Regulates sleep-wake (circadian) rhythms.
Thyroid Gland	Front of the neck, wrapped around the trachea just below the larynx	T₃ (Triiodothyronine), T₄ (Thyroxine), Calcitonin	T₃/T₄ increase metabolism and support growth; calcitonin lowers blood calcium by promoting calcium storage in bone.
Parathyroid Glands	Four tiny glands on the back (posterior surface) of the thyroid	PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)	Raises blood calcium by acting on bone, kidneys, and intestines.
Thymus	Upper chest, behind the sternum and above the heart	Thymosin	Helps mature T cells for the immune system (largest in childhood).
Adrenal Glands	One sits on top of each kidney	Cortex: Cortisol, Aldosterone, Sex steroids Medulla: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine	Stress response, salt/water balance, blood pressure, and fight-or-flight response.
Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)	Upper abdomen, behind the stomach	Insulin, Glucagon, Somatostatin	Regulates blood glucose levels.
Ovaries (Female)	Pelvic cavity, one on each side of the uterus	Estrogen, Progesterone	Female reproductive development, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy.
Testes (Male)	Scrotum	Testosterone	Male reproductive development and sperm production.

Other organs that produce hormones

Organ	Where It's Found	Hormone(s)	Main Function
Adipose Tissue	Throughout the body under the skin and around organs	Leptin	Signals fullness and regulates appetite.
Heart	Thoracic cavity	Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)	Lowers blood pressure by increasing sodium and water excretion.
Kidneys	Back of the abdominal cavity	Erythropoietin (EPO)	Stimulates red blood cell production.
Stomach	Upper left abdomen	Gastrin, Ghrelin	Gastrin stimulates stomach acid; ghrelin stimulates hunger.
Intestines	Abdominal cavity	Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK)	Aid digestion by stimulating pancreatic enzymes, bile release, and regulating stomach emptying.
Liver	Upper right abdomen	Somatomedins (IGFs)	Promote growth in response to growth hormone.
Skeletal Muscle	Attached to bones throughout the body	Irisin	Involved in energy metabolism during exercise.

Easy way to remember locations

Brain: Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Pineal
Neck: Thyroid → Parathyroids (on the back of the thyroid)
Chest: Thymus
Abdomen: Adrenals (on kidneys) → Pancreas (behind stomach)
Pelvis: Ovaries/Testes

For your BISC 162 exam, I'd especially know the gland's location + hormone + major function since those are the most commonly tested together.

If you need 9 entries with Structure → Location → Hormone(s) → Function, these are the major endocrine structures:

Structure	Location	Hormone(s)	Function
Hypothalamus	Base of the brain, below the thalamus	Releasing/inhibiting hormones, makes ADH & Oxytocin	Controls pituitary; maintains homeostasis
Anterior Pituitary	Base of the brain, below the hypothalamus	TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, Prolactin, MSH	Controls other endocrine glands, growth, reproduction, milk production
Posterior Pituitary	Base of the brain, behind the anterior pituitary	Releases ADH & Oxytocin	Water balance; uterine contractions & milk ejection
Pineal Gland	Center of the brain	Melatonin	Regulates sleep/circadian rhythm
Thyroid Gland	Front of the neck, around the trachea	T₃, T₄, Calcitonin	Increases metabolism; calcitonin lowers blood calcium
Parathyroid Glands	Posterior surface of the thyroid	PTH	Raises blood calcium
Thymus	Upper chest, behind the sternum	Thymosin	Matures T cells
Adrenal Glands	On top of each kidney	Cortex: Cortisol, Aldosterone, Sex steroids Medulla: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine	Stress response, blood pressure, fight-or-flight
Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)	Behind the stomach	Insulin, Glucagon, Somatostatin	Regulates blood glucose

If your professor counts the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla separately, then use these instead:

Adrenal Cortex – Outer layer of adrenal gland (on top of kidneys) → Cortisol, Aldosterone, Sex steroids → Long-term stress, salt/water balance, sex hormones.
Adrenal Medulla – Inner layer of adrenal gland → Epinephrine, Norepinephrine → Immediate fight-or-flight response.

This is the format most BISC 162 endocrine exams expect.

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If you mean more structures that produce hormones (not just the major endocrine glands), here are additional ones your professor might include:

Structure	Location	Hormone(s)	Function
Heart	Thoracic cavity (between the lungs)	ANP (Atrial Natriuretic Peptide)	Lowers blood pressure by increasing sodium and water excretion.
Kidneys	Posterior abdomen, one on each side of the spine	Erythropoietin (EPO), Renin, Calcitriol	EPO stimulates red blood cell production; renin helps regulate blood pressure; calcitriol increases calcium absorption.
Liver	Upper right abdomen	IGF-1 (Somatomedin)	Promotes growth in response to growth hormone.
Stomach	Upper left abdomen	Gastrin, Ghrelin	Gastrin stimulates stomach acid; ghrelin stimulates hunger.
Small Intestine	Abdominal cavity	Secretin, CCK	Stimulates pancreatic enzymes and bile release; regulates digestion.
Adipose (Fat) Tissue	Under the skin and around organs	Leptin	Decreases appetite and helps regulate energy balance.
Placenta (during pregnancy)	In the uterus	hCG, Estrogen, Progesterone	Maintains pregnancy and supports fetal development.
Skin	Covers the body	Vitamin D precursor (converted to calcitriol)	Helps regulate calcium absorption.
Testes	Scrotum	Testosterone	Male reproductive function and secondary sex characteristics.
Ovaries	Pelvic cavity	Estrogen, Progesterone	Female reproductive function, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy.

These are the non-classical endocrine organs that often show up on introductory biology endocrine system charts.

If your professor wants all hormone-producing structures, here are more that are commonly covered in biology:

Structure	Location	Hormone(s)	Function
Hypothalamus	Base of brain	Releasing hormones, ADH, Oxytocin	Controls pituitary, homeostasis
Pituitary (Anterior)	Base of brain	TSH, ACTH, GH, FSH, LH, Prolactin, MSH	Master endocrine gland
Pituitary (Posterior)	Base of brain	ADH, Oxytocin (released)	Water balance, childbirth, milk letdown
Pineal	Center of brain	Melatonin	Sleep cycle
Thyroid	Front of neck	T3, T4, Calcitonin	Metabolism, lowers blood Ca²⁺
Parathyroids	Back of thyroid	PTH	Raises blood Ca²⁺
Thymus	Behind sternum	Thymosin	T-cell maturation
Adrenal Cortex	Outer adrenal (on kidneys)	Cortisol, Aldosterone, Androgens	Long-term stress, blood pressure
Adrenal Medulla	Inner adrenal	Epinephrine, Norepinephrine	Fight-or-flight
Pancreas	Behind stomach	Insulin, Glucagon, Somatostatin	Blood glucose regulation
Ovaries	Pelvis	Estrogen, Progesterone	Female reproduction
Testes	Scrotum	Testosterone	Male reproduction
Heart	Chest	ANP	Lowers blood pressure
Kidneys	Posterior abdomen	EPO, Renin, Calcitriol	RBC production, BP, calcium regulation
Liver	Upper right abdomen	IGF-1	Growth
Stomach	Upper left abdomen	Gastrin, Ghrelin	Digestion, hunger
Small Intestine	Abdomen	Secretin, CCK, GIP	Digestion and insulin release
Adipose Tissue	Throughout body	Leptin	Satiety (fullness)
Placenta (pregnancy only)	Uterus	hCG, Estrogen, Progesterone	Maintains pregnancy
Skin	Body surface	Vitamin D precursor	Calcium homeostasis

For BISC 162, the ones your professor is most likely to test are:

Hypothalamus
Pituitary (anterior & posterior)
Pineal
Thyroid
Parathyroids
Thymus
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
Pancreas
Ovaries/Testes
Heart
Kidneys

Those are the structures most commonly included on endocrine system diagrams and exams.Lecture Objectives (ch. 38)

1. Explain and diagram the concepts of homeostasis, feedback (positive and negative) and

countercurrent flow.

2. Differentiate tissue types by function and cell types.

3. Describe the mechanisms used to regulate heat in organisms.

Lecture Objectives (ch. 39)

1. Explain why cell signaling is important in regulating and controlling cellular responses.

(review Chapter 7)

2. Define and explain the properties of hormones and the significance of receptors.

3. Explain the relationship between the brain and endocrine system and the hormones involved.

4. Describe the process of negative feedback in the regulation of different hormone systems.

5. Explain the normal and regulatory processes of hormones from the thyroid, parathyroid,

pancreas, adrenal glands, pineal gland and gonads.

Lecture Objectives (ch. 43)

1. Describe the types and functions of different nervous system cells.

2. Describe the concept of a resting potential.

3. List the types of cell membrane proteins found on neurons and explain how those cell

membranes function in an action potential.

4. Describe how neurotransmitters act to communicate between two neurons.

5. Describe mechanisms by which chemicals can alter transmission of action potentials.

6. Explain the spinal reflex

Lecture Objectives (ch. 46)

1. Describe the structure of muscle cells and tissues.

2. Explain muscle contraction including the sliding filament model and use this model to explain

rigor mortis.

3. Compare and contrast muscle contraction among the different muscle types (skeletal, cardiac,

smooth).

4. Explain factors that contribute to muscle performance.

5. Differentiate between skeletal types and how their muscles and bone interact.

6. Describe the structure of and process of building bone.Lecture Objectives (ch. 40)

1. Describe the general features of the immune system.

2. List the parts and functions of the non-specific immune response and the inflammatory

response.

3. Describe the components of the specific immune response.

4. Explain how clonal selection works similarly to natural selection.

5. Differentiate between the two parts of the specific immune response.

6. Diagram the different responses of B cells.

7. Diagram the responses of different T cells (include humoral response when necessary).

8. Describe how vaccines prepare your immune system.

9. Explain the process that generates variety in B cells and antibodies.

10. Explain how hypersensitivity and autoimmunity arise.

Chapter 7

●

To respond to a signal, a cell must have a specific receptor that can detect it and a way

to use that information to influence cellular processes.

●

Autocrine signals diffuse to and affect the cells that make them. For example, many

tumor cells divide uncontrollably because they both make, and respond to, signals that

stimulate cell division.

●

Juxtacrine signals affect only cells right next to and in contact with the cell producing

the signal. This type of signaling is especially common during development, when cells

are in groups and changing to become specialized.

●

Paracrine signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells. An example occurs in inflammation

when the skin is cut. Signals from skin cells are sent to nearby blood cells to aid in

healing.

●

Signals that travel through the circulatory systems of animals or the vascular systems of

plants are generally called hormones.

●

Transduction Pathway- A signal arrives at a target cell. → The signal molecule binds to a

receptor protein in the cell surface or inside the cell. → Signal binding changes the

three-dimensional shape (conformation) of the receptor and exposes its active site. →

The activated receptor activates a signal transduction pathway. → The signal transduction

pathway activates a cell response.

●

Why is cell signaling important?

Respond to hormones

Communicate with other cells

Maintain homeostasis

Control metabolism

Regulate growth and development

Coordinate body functionsA signal can cause a cell to:

Open or close ion channels

Example: Na⁺ or Ca²⁺ channels open

Activate or inhibit enzymes

Turns metabolic pathways on or off

Turn genes on or off

Changes which proteins are made