AP Gov Study Guide
UNIT 1 – FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
Topic 1.1 – Ideals of Democracy
1. Enlightenment Thought
Political philosophy emphasizing natural rights, social contracts, and consent of the governed as the basis of legitimate government.
2. Natural Rights
Rights all people are born with, such as life, liberty, and property, that governments must protect.
3. Social Contract
An agreement where people give up some freedoms in exchange for government protection of rights and order.
4. Consent of the Governed
The idea that a government’s power comes from the approval of the people.
5. Thomas Hobbes
Philosopher who believed humans are naturally chaotic and need a strong, absolute government for stability.
6. Leviathan
Hobbes’s work arguing for absolute authority to prevent disorder in society.
7. John Locke
Philosopher who argued people have natural rights and governments must have consent to rule.
8. Second Treatise of Civil Government
Locke’s work promoting limited government and protection of natural rights.
9. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Philosopher who emphasized popular sovereignty and the general will of the people.
10. The Social Contract (Rousseau)
Work describing mutual obligations between government and citizens.
11. Popular Sovereignty
The principle that ultimate government authority belongs to the people.
12. Baron de Montesquieu
Philosopher who supported separation of powers to prevent tyranny.
13. Spirit of the Laws
Montesquieu’s work arguing for divided government powers.
14. Separation of Powers
Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
15. Republicanism
System where citizens elect representatives to govern in the public interest.
16. Declaration of Independence
Document justifying separation from Britain based on natural rights and popular sovereignty.
17. Classic Argument
A persuasive strategy aiming to convince others of a viewpoint or action.
18. Articles of Confederation
America’s first national government with strong state power and weak federal authority.
19. Weak Federal Government (AOC)
A national government lacking power to tax, regulate commerce, or raise an army.
20. Constitution
Established a stronger federal government with checks and balances and shared power.
21. Checks and Balances
System where each government branch can limit the others.
22. Representative Republic
A system where citizens elect officials to represent their interests.
Topic 1.2 – Types of Democracy
23. Representative Democracy
A system where elected officials make decisions on behalf of citizens.
24. Participatory Democracy
Direct involvement of citizens in policy decisions.
25. Pluralist Democracy
A system where many interest groups compete to influence policy.
26. Elite Democracy
A system where political power is concentrated among wealthy or educated elites.
27. Marxist View of Democracy
Perspective that government is controlled by wealthy capitalists.
28. Creedal Passion
Belief that moral issues motivate political action more than economic concerns.
29. Bureaucratic View
Idea that unelected bureaucrats have major influence over policy.
Early Political Tensions
30. Federalists
Supporters of the Constitution advocating for a strong national government.
31. Federalist Papers
Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution.
32. Publius
Pseudonym used by authors of the Federalist Papers.
33. Federalist No. 10
Essay arguing a large republic limits the dangers of factionalism.
34. Anti-Federalists
Opponents of the Constitution who feared strong central power.
35. Brutus
Anti-Federalist essays criticizing the Constitution.
36. Brutus No. 1
Essay warning the Constitution would weaken state power and individual liberties.
Topic 1.3 – Government Power & Individual Liberties
37. Bill of Rights
First ten amendments protecting individual freedoms.
38. Federalist View on Rights
Belief that rights were inherently protected by the Constitution.
39. Anti-Federalist View on Rights
Belief that rights must be explicitly listed to be protected.
Chapter 2 – The Constitution
Topic 1.4 – Challenges of the Articles of Confederation
40. Unicameral Legislature
Single-chamber legislature used under the Articles.
41. Shays’ Rebellion
Farmer revolt exposing weaknesses of the Articles.
Topic 1.5 – Ratification of the Constitution
42. Constitutional Convention
Meeting where the Constitution was drafted.
43. Virginia Plan
Proposal favoring large states with representation based on population.
44. New Jersey Plan
Proposal favoring small states with equal representation.
45. Great Compromise
Created bicameral legislature combining both plans.
46. Three-Fifths Compromise
Counted enslaved people as three-fifths for representation.
47. Electoral College
System where electors choose the president.
48. Commerce Compromise
Allowed regulation of interstate commerce and tariffs on imports.
Articles of the Constitution
49. Article I
Defines powers of Congress.
50. Article II
Defines powers of the president.
51. Article III
Defines powers of the judiciary.
52. Article IV
Regulates state relations.
53. Article V
Outlines amendment process.
54. Article VI
Establishes supremacy of federal law.
55. Article VII
Describes ratification process.
Topic 1.6 – Principles of American Government
56. Legislative Branch
Creates laws and controls government funding.
57. Executive Branch
Enforces laws and directs foreign policy.
58. Judicial Branch
Interprets laws and ensures constitutionality.
59. Separation of Powers
Prevent concentration of power.
60. Federalist No. 51
Argues separation of powers prevents tyranny.
61. Checks and Balances
Each branch can limit the others’ powers.
62. Impeachment
Process of charging officials with misconduct.
Chapter 3 – Federalism
Topic 1.7 – Federalism
63. Federalism
Division of power between national and state governments.
64. Supremacy Clause
Federal law overrides state law.
65. Tenth Amendment
Reserves undelegated powers to the states.
66. Exclusive Powers
Powers held only by the federal government.
67. Concurrent Powers
Powers shared by federal and state governments.
68. Police Powers
State authority over safety, health, and morals.
69. Block Grants
Federal grants with broad state discretion.
70. Categorical Grants
Federal grants with strict guidelines.
71. Mandates
Federal requirements imposed on states.
72. Devolution
Return of power to states.
Topic 1.8 – Constitutional Interpretations
73. Commerce Clause
Allows Congress to regulate interstate commerce.
74. Necessary and Proper Clause
Allows implied federal powers.
75. McCulloch v. Maryland
Expanded federal power through implied powers.
76. Dual Federalism
State and federal governments operate in own spheres.
77. U.S. v. Lopez
Limited Congress’s commerce power.
Topic 1.9 – Federalism in Action
78. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Federal agency enforcing environmental laws.
79. Clean Air Act
Regulates air pollution.
80. Kyoto Protocol
International climate change agreement.
81. Paris Agreement
Global treaty targeting climate change.
82. Controlled Substances Act
Federal law criminalizing marijuana.
83. Gonzales v. Raich
Federal drug laws override state legalization.
Got it. Below are NUMBERED FLASHCARDS CONTINUING FROM #84.
Each flashcard has ONE TERM + ONE DEFINITION, covers EVERY BULLET, and is written so you can study both sides.
UNIT 2 – INTERACTIONS AMONG BRANCHES
Chapter 4 – Congress
Topic 2.1 – Congress
85. Article I
Outlines the bicameral legislature; creates the House and Senate; laws must pass both chambers with a simple majority; each chamber has distinct roles.
86. Bicameral Legislature
A two-house legislature consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
87. Senator
Member of the Senate serving 6-year terms, representing an entire state, with greater constitutional responsibilities.
88. Senate Direct Election
Since the 17th Amendment, senators are elected directly by voters rather than state legislatures.
89. Senate Staggered Terms
System where one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years to preserve stability.
90. Representative
Member of the House serving 2-year terms and representing smaller districts closely tied to voters.
Differences Between House and Senate
91. House Qualifications
Must be at least 25 years old, a U.S. citizen for 7 years, and a resident of the state elected from.
92. Senate Qualifications
Must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen for 9 years, and a resident of the represented state.
93. House Unique Powers
Initiates revenue bills, impeaches federal officials, and breaks Electoral College ties for president.
94. Senate Unique Powers
Provides advice and consent on treaties and appointments and conducts impeachment trials.
95. House Membership
435 members serving 2-year terms with no term limits.
96. Senate Membership
100 members serving 6-year terms with no term limits.
97. House Structure
Highly centralized with strict rules, limited debate, and strong leadership by the Speaker.
98. Senate Structure
Less centralized with extended debate, filibusters, and weaker leadership authority.
Congressional Organization & Powers
99. Reapportionment Act of 1929
Requires House seats to be redistributed after each census based on population.
100. Caucus
A group of like-minded lawmakers who organize to set agendas and select leaders.
101. Enumerated Powers
Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress in Article I, Section 8.
102. Power of the Purse
Congress’s exclusive authority to raise taxes, appropriate funds, and authorize spending.
103. Commerce Clause
Grants Congress power to regulate interstate commerce.
104. Foreign and Military Powers of Congress
Include declaring war, raising armies, ratifying treaties, and creating a military draft.
105. Implied Powers
Powers not explicitly stated but derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause.
106. Necessary and Proper Clause
Allows Congress to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.
Topic 2.2 – Structure, Powers & Functions of Congress
Leadership
107. Party Leadership
Members chosen by party caucuses to guide legislation and strategy.
108. Speaker of the House
Most powerful House leader; controls debate, committee assignments, and legislative agenda.
109. House Majority Leader
Leads the majority party and helps coordinate debate and votes.
110. House Minority Leader
Leads the opposition party and acts as its spokesperson.
111. Whip
Party leader responsible for enforcing party discipline and counting votes.
112. Senate Majority Leader
Primary Senate leader who schedules debate and determines which bills reach the floor.
113. President of the Senate
The Vice President, who casts tie-breaking votes.
114. President Pro Tempore
Senior senator of the majority party who presides in the VP’s absence.
Committees
115. Standing Committee
Permanent committee handling ongoing legislative responsibilities.
116. House Judiciary Committee
Drafts crime legislation and oversees impeachment proceedings.
117. House Ways and Means Committee
Key House committee responsible for tax policy.
118. Joint Committee
Committee with members from both chambers for coordination purposes.
119. Select Committee
Temporary committee formed to investigate specific issues.
120. Conference Committee
Temporary committee that reconciles House and Senate versions of bills.
121. Oversight Hearings
Congressional hearings used to monitor executive agencies.
House Rules
122. Germane Amendments
Amendments that must be relevant to the bill topic.
123. Rules Committee
Powerful House committee that controls debate terms and bill flow.
124. Committee of the Whole
House-only body allowing looser debate rules with fewer members.
125. Discharge Petition
Procedure allowing a majority to force a bill out of committee.
Senate Rules
126. Filibuster
Extended debate used to delay or block legislation.
127. Cloture
Procedure to end a filibuster by a 3/5 majority vote.
128. Unanimous Consent
Agreement allowing the Senate to proceed without formal debate.
129. Hold
A Senate tactic delaying consideration of legislation.
Legislative Process
130. Bill Sponsor
Member of Congress who introduces a bill.
131. Rider
Nongermane amendment attached to a bill to advance specific interests.
132. Omnibus Bill
Large bill combining multiple legislative measures.
133. Pork-Barrel Spending
Funding allocated to specific districts to secure political support.
134. Logrolling
Trading votes between lawmakers to gain bill passage.
Budgeting
135. Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Presidential office that prepares the federal budget.
136. Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
Nonpartisan agency analyzing budget proposals.
137. Mandatory Spending
Spending required by law, such as Social Security and Medicare.
138. Discretionary Spending
Spending decided annually through appropriations.
139. National Debt
Total accumulated borrowing due to federal budget deficits.
Topic 2.3 – Congressional Behavior
140. Gridlock
Political stalemate preventing legislative action.
141. Delegate Model
Lawmakers vote according to constituents’ preferences.
142. Trustee Model
Lawmakers vote using personal judgment.
143. Politico Model
Combination of delegate and trustee approaches.
144. Redistricting
Redrawing congressional districts after the census.
145. Baker v. Carr (1962)
Established redistricting disputes as justiciable and created one-person-one-vote.
146. Gerrymandering
Manipulating district boundaries for political advantage.
147. Safe Seat
District reliably won by one party.
148. Marginal Seat
Competitive district with no dominant party.
149. Racial Gerrymandering
Redistricting based primarily on race.
150. Shaw v. Reno (1993)
Ruled racial gerrymandering violates equal protection.
151. Divided Government
Different political parties control Congress and the presidency.
152. Lame Duck
Elected official serving after losing re-election.
Chapter 5 – The Presidency (Start)
153. Policy Agenda
List of issues the president prioritizes.
154. Article II
Defines executive powers.
155. Veto
Presidential rejection of legislation.
156. Pocket Veto
Bill automatically fails if president takes no action during adjournment.
157. Line-Item Veto
Power to veto specific parts of a bill (ruled unconstitutional).
158. Commander-in-Chief
President’s authority over the military.
159. Executive Order
Presidential directive with the force of law.
UNIT 3 – CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
Chapter 8 – Bill of Rights & First Amendment
Topic 3.1 – Bill of Rights
160. James Madison’s Role
Originally opposed a Bill of Rights but changed his position, wrote the amendments, and ensured ratification of all ten amendments in 1791.
161. Bill of Rights
First ten amendments protecting civil liberties, individual rights, property, opinions, and reserving unlisted powers to the states.
162. Public Interest
Small limitations on civil liberties justified to protect the common good, such as safety and public order.
Bill of Rights – Required Supreme Court Cases
163. Schenck v. United States (1919)
Established that speech posing a “clear and present danger” is not protected by the First Amendment.
164. Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Ruled school-sponsored prayer violates the Establishment Clause.
165. Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)
Protected student symbolic speech unless it causes substantial disruption.
166. New York Times v. United States (1971)
Prohibited prior restraint by the government on press publications.
167. Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)
Held compulsory education laws violated Amish free exercise rights.
168. McDonald v. Chicago (2010)
Applied the Second Amendment right to bear arms to the states.
169. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Required states to provide attorneys for indigent defendants.
170. Roe v. Wade (1973)
Established abortion as part of a woman’s right to privacy with state limits.
Topic 3.2 – Freedom of Religion
171. Separation of Church and State
Doctrine preventing government involvement or endorsement of religion.
172. Establishment Clause
Prohibits government from establishing or favoring a religion.
173. Free Exercise Clause
Protects individuals’ rights to practice religion unless it threatens public safety or law.
Engel v. Vitale Details
174. School Prayer Background
Before Engel, many public schools held broad, nondenominational prayers.
175. Engel Majority Reasoning
Government-created prayers in public schools violate the Establishment Clause.
176. Concurring Opinion in Engel
Argued students are pressured into participation even if prayer is voluntary.
Lemon Test
177. Lemon Test
Three-part test to determine Establishment Clause violations.
178. Secular Purpose Requirement
Government action must have a non-religious purpose.
179. Primary Effect Requirement
Government action must neither advance nor inhibit religion.
180. Excessive Entanglement
Government must avoid close involvement with religious institutions.
Wisconsin v. Yoder Details
181. Yoder Constitutional Question
Questioned whether compulsory education violates free exercise rights.
182. Yoder Majority Reasoning
Court prioritized religious freedom over state education interests.
Contemporary Religion Issues
183. Public Funding of Religious Schools
Direct funding is often unconstitutional, but indirect aid may pass scrutiny.
184. School Vouchers
Permissible because funds go to parents, not directly to religious institutions.
185. Religion in Public Schools
Private religious expression is allowed; school-sponsored prayer is not.
186. Religious Symbols on Public Land
Allowed when part of broader historical or cultural displays.
Topic 3.3 – Freedom of Speech
187. Protected Speech
Speech generally shielded unless government shows compelling interest.
188. Compelling Government Interest
Strong justification required for limiting free speech.
Speech & Protests
189. U.S. v. O’Brien (1968)
Burning draft cards was illegal conduct not protected as speech.
190. Cohen v. California (1971)
Offensive political speech is protected if it does not incite harm.
Time, Place, Manner Test
191. Content Neutrality
Restrictions cannot target the message’s viewpoint.
192. Significant Government Interest
Regulation must protect important societal interests.
193. Narrow Tailoring
Law must be specific and not overly broad.
194. Alternative Channels
Other reasonable opportunities for expression must exist.
Symbolic Speech
195. Symbolic Speech
Conduct expressing ideas that may be protected under the First Amendment.
196. Texas v. Johnson (1989)
Flag burning protected as political symbolic speech.
Student Speech Cases
197. Bethel v. Fraser (1986)
Schools can restrict vulgar, non-political student speech.
198. Morse v. Frederick (2007)
Schools may restrict student speech promoting illegal drug use.
Obscenity
199. Obscenity
Speech not protected due to explicit sexual content.
200. Roth Standard
Defined obscenity based on community standards and prurient interest.
201. Miller Test
Three-part test determining what constitutes obscene material.
Clear & Present Danger
202. Clear and Present Danger
Standard allowing restriction if speech incites imminent harm.
203. Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)
Limited punishment to speech intended to incite immediate lawless action.
Topic 3.4 – Freedom of the Press
204. Libel
False published statements harming a person’s reputation.
205. Actual Malice
Knowledge of falsity or reckless disregard for the truth.
206. New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
Protected press by requiring higher standards for libel claims.
207. Prior Restraint
Government prohibition of publication before it occurs.
Pentagon Papers Case
208. New York Times v. United States (1971)
Ruled government may not block publication citing vague national security.
Chapter 9 – Balancing Liberty & Safety
Topic 3.5 – Second Amendment
209. Second Amendment
Protects the right to bear arms.
210. National Firearms Act (1934)
Regulated high-risk firearms through taxes and registration.
211. Gun Control Act (1968)
Restricted firearm sales to dangerous individuals.
212. Brady Bill (1993)
Mandated waiting periods for handgun purchases.
213. District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)
Recognized individual right to bear arms.
Topic 3.6 – Liberty vs. Order
214. Eighth Amendment
Prohibits excessive bail and cruel punishment.
215. Gregg v. Georgia (1976)
Upheld death penalty under strict procedural safeguards.
216. Habeas Corpus
Right to challenge unlawful detention.
217. Guantanamo Bay Detentions
Raised constitutional concerns over due process.
218. Fourth Amendment
Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.
219. Probable Cause
Reasonable belief required for warrants or arrests.
220. Metadata
Data about communication patterns, not content.
Chapter 10 – Due Process
Topic 3.7 – Selective Incorporation
221. Selective Incorporation
Process applying the Bill of Rights to states via the 14th Amendment.
222. Barron v. Baltimore (1833)
Held Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government.
223. Fourteenth Amendment
Extended due process and equal protection to state actions.
Key Incorporation Cases
224. Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
Incorporated Establishment Clause to the states.
225. Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
Applied exclusionary rule to the states.
226. Timbs v. Indiana (2019)
Applied excessive fines clause to states.
Topic 3.8 – Due Process & Accused
227. Procedural Due Process
Ensures fair procedures before government action.
228. Substantive Due Process
Protects fundamental rights from unjust laws.
229. Exclusionary Rule
Excludes illegally obtained evidence.
230. Good Faith Exception
Allows evidence seized with honest legal mistakes.
231. Inevitable Discovery
Allows evidence that would’ve been found legally anyway.
Rights of the Accused
232. Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Required informing suspects of rights during custody.
233. Public Safety Exception
Allows questioning without Miranda to prevent immediate harm.
234. Right to Counsel
Guarantees legal representation in criminal trials.
Gideon Case
235. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Guaranteed attorneys for indigent defendants in state trials.
Topic 3.9 – Privacy Rights
236. Right to Privacy
Implied protection of personal decisions from government interference.
237. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Established constitutional right to marital privacy.
238. Roe v. Wade (1973)
Recognized abortion rights under substantive due process.
239. Planned Parenthood v. Casey
Allowed abortion regulation without undue burden.
240. Hyde Amendment
Prohibits federal funding for abortions.
Chapter 11 – Civil Rights
Topic 3.10 – Social Movements
241. Equal Protection Clause
Requires states to treat individuals equally under the law.
242. NAACP
Organization advancing African American civil rights through litigation.
Women’s Rights
243. Nineteenth Amendment
Granted women the right to vote.
244. Equal Pay Act (1963)
Required equal pay for men and women.
245. Title IX
Mandated gender equality in federally funded education.
246. Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
Proposed amendment guaranteeing gender equality; not ratified.
LGBTQ+ Rights
247. Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
Struck down laws criminalizing same-sex intimacy.
248. Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell
Military policy barring open service by LGBTQ members.
249. Obergefell v. Hodges
Guaranteed same-sex marriage nationwide.
250. Bostock v. Clayton County
Extended workplace protections to LGBTQ employees.
Topic 3.11 – Government Action
251. Thirteenth Amendment
Abolished slavery.
252. Fifteenth Amendment
Prohibited racial discrimination in voting.
253. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Established “separate but equal” doctrine.
254. Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Ended school segregation as unconstitutional.
255. Civil Rights Act of 1964
Banned discrimination in employment and public accommodations.
256. Voting Rights Act of 1965
Protected minority voting rights and expanded federal oversight.
257. Twenty-Fourth Amendment
Banned poll taxes.
Topic 3.12 – Minority vs. Majority Rights
258. White Flight
Migration of white families from desegregated areas.
259. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg (1971)
Upheld court-ordered school busing.
260. Milliken v. Bradley (1974)
Limited interdistrict busing.
261. Majority-Minority Districts
Electoral districts designed to empower minority voters.
262. Cooper v. Harris (2017)
Struck down racial gerrymandering.
Topic 3.13 – Affirmative Action
263. Affirmative Action
Policies promoting diversity by giving advantages to underrepresented groups.
264. Regents v. Bakke (1978)
Banned quotas but allowed race as a factor.
265. Reverse Discrimination
Claims by majority groups alleging unfair treatment.
266. Strict Scrutiny
Highest standard courts use for race-based policies.
UNIT 4 – Citizens’ Beliefs & Political Ideology
Chapter 12 – Citizen Beliefs & Ideology
Topic 4.1 – American Attitudes About Government & Politics
267. Conservatism
Political ideology emphasizing law and order, traditional values, limited government, lower taxes, and harsher punishment.
268. Liberalism
Political ideology prioritizing civil liberties, social progressivism, larger government involvement, and higher taxes to fund public programs.
269. Political Culture
Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, and values that shape political behavior and create societal consensus.
270. Core American Values
Widely shared principles such as liberty, equality, and democracy that form the foundation of American political culture.
271. Individualism
Belief in self-reliance and personal success rooted in Enlightenment ideas of natural and inalienable rights.
272. Individualism Spectrum
Range from self-centered individualism to enlightened self-interest, where individuals sacrifice some freedom for collective benefit.
273. Equality of Opportunity
Belief that everyone should have a fair chance to succeed, not guaranteed equality of outcomes.
274. Government Protection of Equality
Federal actions such as the 14th Amendment, Civil Rights Act, and Title VII aimed at ensuring equal opportunity.
275. Equality Spectrum
Debate ranging from belief in full equality through equal treatment to equity requiring government assistance.
276. Free Enterprise
Economic system based on capitalism and private ownership, influenced by Adam Smith and laissez-faire principles.
277. Laissez-Faire Economics
Hands-off government approach trusting markets to regulate themselves.
278. Free Enterprise Spectrum
Ranges from minimal regulation supporters to those favoring strong government involvement to protect consumers and workers.
279. Modern Economic Consensus
General belief that some government regulation is necessary for labor rights, environmental protection, and stability.
280. Rule of Law
Principle that laws apply equally to all people, including government officials.
281. Accountability
Constitutional systems designed to reduce corruption and hold government officials responsible.
282. Limited Government
Belief that government power should be restricted to protect natural rights through separation of powers and checks and balances.
283. Political Application of Limited Government
Both major parties endorse limited government in theory and oppose overt violations of individual rights.
284. Liberal Government Era
Period from the 1930s–1960s marked by New Deal and Great Society programs with strong federal involvement.
Topic 4.2 – Political Socialization
285. Political Socialization
Lifelong process through which people form and develop political beliefs.
286. Family Influence
Primary early influence on ideology; many young adults adopt parental political beliefs.
287. School Influence
Education level and peer exposure influence political beliefs more than primary schooling content.
288. Peer Influence
Friends and social circles strongly affect voting behavior and political participation.
289. Media Influence
Exposure to news and social media shapes political opinions and increases political engagement.
290. Media Problems
Issues such as misinformation, agenda-setting, echo chambers, and political idolization.
291. Religious Institutions
Religious participation often increases political participation and influences vote choice.
292. Evangelical Christian Voting Patterns
Fundamentalist and evangelical Christians typically vote Republican.
293. Non-Evangelical Religious Voting Patterns
Catholics, Jews, and smaller religious groups tend to vote Democratic.
294. Civic Institutions
Non-governmental organizations that may reinforce or diversify political beliefs.
295. Geographic Influence
Regional differences significantly shape political ideology.
296. Northeast & West Coast Ideology
Regions typically more liberal due to urbanization and economic development.
297. Southern Ideology
Region generally more conservative due to religion, agrarian traditions, and gun culture.
298. Deep South
Historically conservative voting bloc of states once Democratic and now Republican.
299. Globalization
Increasing global economic and cultural interconnection influencing political beliefs.
300. U.S. Influence Abroad
American businesses and media spread U.S. values internationally.
301. Democratization Goal
Foreign policy aim of promoting democracy in authoritarian countries.
302. Global Influence on the U.S.
Immigration reshapes political culture and social attitudes.
303. Global Identification
Growing tendency to identify with global or regional communities beyond national borders.
Topic 4.3 – Changes in Ideology
304. Generational Effects
Theory that political beliefs vary by generation, with youth more liberal and elders more conservative.
305. Generational Theory Limits
Political ideology is shaped by multiple factors beyond age alone.
306. Millennials
Highly educated, diverse generation under 40 that tends to be liberal.
307. Millennial Social Views
Greater acceptance of diversity, marijuana legalization, and criminal justice reform.
308. Millennial Foreign Policy Views
Stronger preference for diplomacy over military force.
309. Millennial Economic Views
Support regulated capitalism with environmental protections and cautious free trade.
310. Millennial Voting Patterns
Majority identify as Democrats or lean progressive.
311. Silent Generation
Older generation shaped by anti-communism, patriotism, and traditional values.
312. Silent Generation Social Views
More religious and resistant to rapid social change.
313. Silent Generation Voting Behavior
Highest voter turnout due to time, investments, and reliance on social programs.
314. Lifecycle Effects
Political beliefs shift as individuals age and priorities change.
Topic 4.4 – Influence of Political Events
315. Major Political Events
Large-scale events that shape generational political attitudes.
316. Great Depression Impact
Created expectation of government responsibility for economic security.
317. World War II Impact
Unified the nation and expanded women’s role in the workforce.
318. Cold War Impact
Strengthened opposition to communism and totalitarianism.
319. Boomer Political Shocks
Assassinations, civil rights progress, and Vietnam War fostered distrust of government.
320. Boomer Party Shift
Gradual movement from Democratic to Republican alignment with age and ideology.
321. Post-9/11 Impact on Youth
Initial trust followed by skepticism toward prolonged foreign wars.
322. Great Recession Impact
Increased demand for government intervention and economic protection.
Chapter 13 – Public Opinion
Topic 4.5 – Measuring Public Opinion
323. Public Opinion Polling
Method used to assess public attitudes toward candidates and policies.
324. Benchmark Polls
Early polls measuring support before policy positions are announced.
325. Tracking Polls
Polls measuring changes in opinion over time.
326. Exit Polls
Surveys conducted on Election Day to predict outcomes.
327. Presidential Approval Ratings
Measurement of public support for the president, often highest early in terms.
328. Focus Groups
Small discussion groups providing qualitative insight into opinions.
329. Biased Questions
Survey wording that influences responses.
330. Representative Sample
Sample reflecting the diversity of the population.
331. Random Sample
Selection method ensuring equal chance of participation.
332. Random-Digit Dialing
Computerized method for generating random phone numbers.
333. Weighting and Stratification
Adjusting samples to reflect population demographics accurately.
334. Sampling Error
Margin of error resulting from limitations in sampling.
335. Non-Attitudes
Responses from uninformed or indifferent participants.
336. Human Bias
Tendency of respondents to misreport opinions.
337. Push Polling
Manipulative polling designed to influence opinions.
Topic 4.7 – Evaluating Public Opinion
338. Horse-Race Polling
Media focus on who is winning rather than policy substance.
339. Bandwagon Effect
Tendency to support leading candidates due to perceived popularity.
340. Poll Influence on Policy
Public opinion influences elections more than policymaking.
341. Legislative Responsiveness
House members are more responsive to polling than Senators.
342. Executive Opinion Management
Presidents use public platforms to influence opinion.
343. Judicial Sensitivity
Courts may reflect shifts in public sentiment despite insulation from elections.
344. Polling Reliability Issues
Failures such as inaccurate predictions in 2016.
345. Social-Desirability Bias
Respondents answer in socially acceptable ways rather than truthfully.
346. Bradley Effect
Polling overestimates support for minority candidates.
347. Late-Breaking Undecideds
Voters who decide at the last moment contrary to polling.
348. Non-Response Bias
Polling distortion caused by refusal to participate.
Chapter 14 – Political Ideologies & Public Policy
Topic 4.7 – Party Ideologies
349. Ideology
Coherent system of political beliefs.
350. Valence Issues
Issues widely agreed upon across ideologies.
351. Wedge Issues
Highly divisive issues with little compromise.
352. Saliency
Importance of an issue to a particular group.
353. Liberal Evolution
Shift from small-government liberalism to progressive government activism.
354. Conservative Evolution
Emphasis on small government and traditional values from mid-20th century.
355. Ideological Nuance
Social conservatism often requires state enforcement, while liberal economics increase regulation.
356. Libertarianism
Ideology favoring minimal government, economic freedom, and civil liberties.
357. Populism
Anti-elite ideology combining nationalism with economic protectionism.
358. Progressivism
Movement promoting equality, democracy, and economic reform.
359. Party Platforms
Formal statements outlining party principles and goals.
360. Democratic Coalition
Includes liberals and progressives.
361. Republican Coalition
Includes conservatives, populists, and some libertarians.
Topic 4.8 – Ideology & Policymaking
362. Majoritarian Policymaking
Policies enacted based on majority public support.
363. Interest Group Policymaking
Policy shaped by organized advocacy groups.
364. Liberty and Order Balance
Ongoing tension in lawmaking between freedom and stability.
365. Policy Agenda
List of issues political actors seek to address.
366. Policymaking Sequence
Issue attention, investigation, legislation, and gradual implementation.
367. Policy Implementation
Execution of laws through executive agencies.
Topic 4.9 – Ideology & Economic Policy
368. Keynesian Economics
Theory advocating government spending during low demand.
369. Multiplier Effect
Economic impact of government spending exceeding its initial cost.
370. Supply-Side Economics
Theory that tax cuts and deregulation increase economic growth.
371. Fiscal Policy
Government decisions on taxation and spending.
372. Progressive Tax System
Higher incomes taxed at higher rates.
373. Flat Tax
Same tax rate applied to all incomes.
374. Budget Deficit
Spending exceeding revenue.
375. Monetary Policy
Federal Reserve management of the money supply.
376. Inflation
Rising prices caused by excess money in the economy.
377. Federal Reserve System
Central banking system managing monetary policy.
378. Discount Rate
Interest rate charged to banks for borrowing from the Fed.
379. Reserve Requirement
Minimum reserves banks must hold.
380. Government Bonds
Debt instruments used to borrow money.
381. Trade Balance
Difference between exports and imports.
382. Tariffs
Taxes on imported goods.
Topic 4.10 – Ideology & Social Policy
383. Social Welfare
Government programs supporting basic needs.
384. Social Safety Net
Government protections against poverty and economic hardship.
385. Entitlements
Legally required government benefits.
386. Social Security
Federal retirement and disability program funded by payroll taxes.
387. Medicare
Health insurance for seniors.
388. Medicaid
Health insurance for low-income individuals.
389. Conservative Welfare Opposition
Preference for limited welfare spending and reduced regulation.
390. Affordable Care Act
Law expanding health insurance coverage through regulation.
391. Labor Regulation Ideology
Liberals support worker protections; conservatives favor market forces.
392. Privacy Ideology Divide
Liberals favor personal autonomy; conservatives emphasize moral order.
UNIT 5 – POLITICAL PARTICIPATION (FLASHCARDS)
Topic 5.1 – Voting Rights & Voting Behavior
393. Electorate — The portion of the population legally eligible to vote; states historically controlled voter eligibility.
394. Franchise — The right to vote; expanded over time from white male property owners to nearly all adult citizens.
395. Suffrage — Legal qualifications for voting; historically limited by poll taxes, property ownership, literacy, and religion.
104. 15th Amendment — Ratified in 1870; banned denying the vote based on race, color, or previous servitude.
105. 19th Amendment — Ratified in 1920; prohibited denying the vote based on sex, expanding voting rights to women.
106. 23rd Amendment — Ratified in 1961; granted Washington, D.C. three electoral votes in presidential elections.
107. 24th Amendment — Ratified in 1964; banned poll taxes in federal elections.
108. 26th Amendment — Ratified in 1971; lowered the voting age to 18.
109. Structural Barriers — State-imposed voting restrictions after Reconstruction that intimidated Black voters without explicitly violating the Constitution.
110. Poll Tax — A fee required to vote; discouraged poor voters, especially African Americans.
111. Literacy Test — Difficult and arbitrarily graded exams used to prevent Black citizens from voting.
112. Grandfather Clause — Allowed voting only if a voter’s grandfather was eligible; excluded descendants of enslaved people.
113. White Primaries — Elections restricted to white voters, effectively excluding Black voters from meaningful participation.
114. 17th Amendment — Ratified in 1913; required senators to be directly elected by voters instead of state legislatures.
115. Guinn v. United States — Supreme Court case that invalidated grandfather clauses.
116. Smith v. Allwright — Supreme Court decision that struck down white primaries.
117. Preclearance — Requirement under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 for certain states to get federal approval before changing voting laws.
118. Shelby County v. Holder — 2013 case that eliminated preclearance, citing federal overreach toward states.
119. Rational-Choice Voting — Voting based on self-interest or what benefits one’s community, sometimes prioritizing broader outcomes over personal beliefs.
120. Retrospective Voting — Voting based on a candidate’s past performance and record.
121. Prospective Voting — Voting based on expectations of how candidates will perform in the future.
122. Party-Line Voting — Voting consistently for candidates of one political party.
123. Candidate Character Voting — Voting based on personal traits and image of the candidate rather than policy positions.
Topic 5.2 – Voting Turnout
124. Voting-Age Population — All citizens aged 18 and older.
125. Voter Turnout — The percentage of eligible voters who actually vote.
126. State Control of Elections — States manage voter registration, ballots, districts, and election certification.
127. Federal Role in Elections — Sets election dates, enforces voting rights laws, and regulates campaign finance.
128. National Voter Registration Act (1993) — Standardized voter registration and required registration opportunities at state agencies.
129. Motor-Voter Law — Informal name for NVRA due to DMV-based voter registration.
130. Help America Vote Act (2002) — Required modern voting systems, voter identification, and accessibility after the 2000 election.
131. Australian Ballot — Secret ballot printed at public expense and used nationwide.
132. Provisional Ballot — Temporary ballot used when voter eligibility is uncertain, preventing disenfranchisement.
133. Absentee Ballot — Allows early voting for those unable to vote in person; often requires justification.
134. Online Voting — Hypothetical voting method that could increase access but raises digital equity concerns.
135. Voter ID Laws — State laws requiring identification to vote; critics argue they disproportionately impact minorities.
136. OECD Voting Comparison — U.S. voter turnout is lower than most developed democracies.
137. Midterm Elections — Congressional elections with lower turnout than presidential elections.
138. Political Efficacy — Belief that one’s vote matters and can influence outcomes.
139. Political Apathy — Lack of interest or concern in political participation.
140. Satisfaction Theory — People may not vote if they are content with current political conditions.
Demographic Influences on Voting
141. Voting Blocs — Groups of voters who share demographic traits influencing voting behavior.
142. Gender Gap — Differences in political views between men and women.
143. Women Voters — Tend to favor welfare, oppose harsh punishment, vote more than men, and lean Democratic.
144. Age and Voting — Older citizens vote at higher rates than younger citizens.
145. Youth Voter Apathy — Lower turnout due to weaker political identity and time constraints.
146. Racial Voting Trends — Minority turnout increased until 2012 but has declined since.
147. African American Voting Patterns — Shifted from Republican to Democratic during the New Deal era.
148. Hispanic Voting Patterns — Urban Latinos typically vote Democrat; Cuban Americans more likely Republican.
149. Asian American Voting (Historical) — Previously leaned Republican due to foreign policy and economic views.
150. Asian American Voting Shift — Younger Asian Americans increasingly vote Democratic for social justice reasons.
151. Evangelicals — White Evangelical Protestants overwhelmingly vote Republican.
152. Catholics — Historically Democratic but now politically divided.
153. Jewish Voters — Strongly Democratic due to emphasis on civil liberties and civil rights.