The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution

Overview

  • Intellectual and cultural transformation that began in Europe.
  • Occurred from the mid-1500s to the early 1700s.
  • Emphasized knowledge acquisition through:
    • Careful observations.
    • Controlled experiments.
    • Formulation of general laws.
    • Mathematical expressions.
  • Shifted away from reliance on:
    • Authority of the Bible and Church.
    • Speculations of ancient philosophers.
    • Received wisdom from cultural tradition.

Origins: Why Europe?

  • Independence for universities: Scholars had the freedom to pursue studies without interference from Church or governmental authorities.
  • Most major figures in the Scientific Revolution were trained in or affiliated with these universities (e.g., Cambridge University in England).

Why Not the Islamic World?

  • Focus in colleges/universities: Primarily on Quranic studies and religious law.
  • Science was studied outside the formal system of higher education.
  • Religious scholars: Viewed science/philosophy with suspicion.
    • Believed the Quran holds all wisdom.
    • Feared science might challenge the Quran.
    • Concerned that science and philosophy led to uncertainty and confusion.

Why Not China?

  • Chinese education: Focused on preparing males for civil service examinations.
  • Emphasis on classical Confucian texts.
  • Chinese authorities: Did not allow independent institutions of learning where scholars could pursue studies freely.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

  • Polish astronomer.
  • Studied at the University of Krakow in Poland in 1492.
  • Lived at the beginning of the Scientific Revolution when few dared to question old beliefs and superstitions.

Models of the Solar System

  • Geocentric (Earth-centered) model.
  • Heliocentric (Sun-centered) model.

Biblical Challenge

  • Joshua 10:12-13: Biblical passage where Joshua asks the sun to stand still.

Heliocentric Theory

  • Believed the Earth was round and rotated around the sun.
  • The sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe.
  • Challenged the idea that the Earth was unique and at the center of God’s attention.

The Council of Trent - 1545

  • Meeting of Church officials to stop the spread of Protestantism.
    • Protestantism: A new Christian religion that removed the Pope's authority.
  • The council decreed that only the Catholic Church could interpret the Bible.
  • Established the Holy Office of the Roman Inquisition to persecute heretics.
    • Heretic: Someone whose beliefs go against the Church’s official beliefs.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

  • Italian mathematician.
  • Improved the telescope to make it more powerful.
    • Observed sunspots, mountains on the moon, Jupiter’s moons.
  • 1636: Published ideas on physics, astronomy, etc.
    • Confirmed Copernicus’ theory.
    • Book banned by the Catholic Church.

Galileo Galilei: Conflict with the Church

  • Faced heated opposition by the Catholic Church.
  • Placed under house arrest for 50 years, where he made most of his discoveries and achievements.

Central Historical Question

  • Was Galileo really a heretic?
    • Heretic: Someone who holds a belief contrary to Christian doctrine.

After Galileo

  • 1661: Isaac Newton taught Galileo & Copernicus’s ideas in England.
  • 1758: Catholic Church ended ban on books teaching heliocentrism.
  • 1939: Pope Pius XII called Galileo a hero of research.
  • 1979: Pope John Paul II ordered an investigation into the Church’s treatment of Galileo.