Socials 9 FINALS!!!
Canadian History
First Contact
Before European Contact:
Indigenous people had many similarities and differences before contact
Still had conflict and warfare between the indigenous people
Causes and Motivation:
Personal prestige: young men earned status in war
Economic gain: wealth, slaves, bring gifts=show power
Political and territorial gain: resources and trade routes
Mourning wars: captured individuals to replace lost love ones from wars
Vikings:
Came over in 1000
Todays newfoundland = Vinland
Initially traded with the indigenous
Vikings stopped trading weapons which the indigenous valued
Distance from home was great
Vikings left
Age of “Discovery” - 15th century
Looking for Asia - spain, portugal, france, britain
Stumbled upon the New World
Doctrine of Discovery:
Legal and religious concept
To justify christian colonial conquest
European peoples, culture, religion was superior
Allowed christian empires to take land and resources from non christian inhabitants and impose their rule
Age of “Discovery” - 16th century
Jacques Cartier made three significant voyages
First voyage:
Sailed to Newfoundland, Labrador, PEI, NB, Gaspe Peninsula and claimed it for France = New France
Kidnapped two sons of Haudenosaunee (Iroquois/Six Nations) chief, Donnaconna to use as guides and returned to France with them
Second Voyage:
Returned to the St Lawrence region and reached Stadacona (Quebec City) and Hochelaga (Montreal)
Kidnapped 9 indigenous people and Donnaconna
Third Voyage:
Goal to establish a colony and find the Kingdom of Saguenay
Returned to france
Failed to establish a french colony
No Kingdom of Saguenay
Successfully established contact for fur trade
Laid the foundation for Samuel De Champlain to continue his work
Age of Discovery - 17th century
Champlain unsuccessfully tried to establish a colony, Port Royal (Nova Scotia)
Some stayed behind and became skilled farmers;eventually became colony of Acadia (Nova Scotia)
Story of Us: World Collide
Samuel De Champlain wanted to establish a settlement in Innu territory
He was in a rush to do so to create a trade settlement and to “found” a nation
Jean Duval was a member of Champlain’s party who wanted to kill him
He was charged for treason and beheaded (put his head on a stake)
By the end of winter, 7/27 survived
The fortified settlement soon became Quebec City
Wendant and Haudenosaunee were at war for control of the fur trade
Champlain partners with the Wendat
Wendat + SDC wins control over St Lawrence
Haudenosaunee got exclusive rights to fur
SDC helped win the war by his gun that shoots through armor = Arquebus
SDC + Wendats won the battle
Wendat now has control of fur trade and St Lawrence
Filles du Roi - the King’s Daughters
poor/orphaned French women
To grow families for New France = tools of the empire
5 children/family
Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medard des Groseilliers found new trapping territory in a remote Cree village where there was a beaver shortage
The result: valuable thick fur pet
Cree elders financed their expeditions
They traded without licence -> punished
Battle of Plains of Abraham
Montcalm (France) -> injured and dies
James Wolfe (England) -> slowly dies
Battle ends in 30 minutes
90% of Indigenous population died
New France
King Louis XIV sent soldiers and the Filles du Roi
Shift from imperialism to colonialism
Hudson’s Bay Company
Established trading posts at the mouths of rivers into the Hudson and James Bay
King Charles II claimed the drainage basin of the Hudson’s Bay and named it Ruperts Land
Rise in mercantilism -> led to capitalism, reselling for more $
Mercantilism: a nation’s wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and trade
French Indian Wars of North America
Indigenous:
Wabanaki remained allies with French
Iroquois largely allied with British
They faced losses (slavery/kills)
Had to navigate a landscape where Britain became dominant colonial power
French:
Unresolved problems, kept things before war = no gains
Left original tensions over trade and territory unsettled
They were not always allied with Wabanaki
Loss of North American empire
British:
Usually allies with Iroquois
Expansion goals
Gained fur trade, military power, fertile lands=Ohio River Valley
Global dominance
To clear winner to total dominance after Treaty of Paris
King William’s War (Nine Year’s War)
French allies=Wabanaki Confederacy
British allies=Iroquois Confederacy
Tensions rose in Acadia
Wabanaki strengthened alliances with French
Raided each other’s settlements
Continuous battles = no clear winner
Outcome:
Treaty of Ryswick
Return to prewar boundaries = unresolved
Sets the stage of Queen Anne’s War
Queen Anne’s War
English, French, Spanish colonies
French allies=Wabanaki
British allies=Iroquois
Indigenous and Spain attacked English trading post
English forces invaded Spanish Florida
1000s killed, slavery
Treaty of Utrecht
Britain gained territories
France kept Cape Breton
Wabanaki = New England colony
British Victory
King George’s War
Great Britain and France
French allies=Mi’kmaq and Maliseet
British allies=Annapolis Royal (port royal)
French raided British = unsuccessful
British organized assault on Louisbourg and captured fortress
French and indigenous forces carried out raids and forced British to leave homes in British colonies
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Britain returned Louisbourg to France for captured city in India
Tensions led to French and Indian war
Seven Year’s War (French and Indian war)
French allies=Wyandot, Ojibwe, Potawatomi
British allies=Iroquois
Grew out of intense rivalry
Competing for colonies, trade, military power, fur trade, Ohio river valley
French rushed to attack, British held position
Both leaders killed
British captured Montreal
Treaty of Paris
Reshaped North America = beginning of British dominance in region
The Fall of New France
Seven Year’s War:
Major global conflict with fighting in - Europe, North American, India
Causes:
European Rivalries - Britain and France were competing for colonies, trade dominance, and military supremacy
Strategic locations - both wanted control of vital waterways such as St Lawrence, Mississippi Rivers
Competition for land and resources - both wanted control over fur trade and Ohio River Valley - British colonies pushed westward into French-claimed territory
Causes of the Treaty
Military defeats for France
Britain captured Louisbourg, Quebec (POA) and Montreal
Economic strain - debts from years at war for both France and Britain making peace a priority
Negotiation pressure - France couldn't afford to lose more valuable colonies
Treaty of Paris
British gained French territory in North America and Florida from Spain
France kept a few small islands in the Atlantic and Caribbean
Spain received Louisiana
Aftermath
British dominance in North America
French Canadians under British rule
Allowed French to keep their language, religion, and civil laws to avoid rebellion
Indigenous peoples’ challenges - lost a crucial ally in the French and lost territory
Frustrations with the British
End of gift-giving = a foundation of Indigenous-European relations
Strict trade restrictions, particularly weapons and ammunition
Expansion of British settlements, particularly Ohio Valley and Great Lakes
British occupation of former French forts, which became symbols of control rather than diplomacy
Pontiac’s Rebellion
PONTIAC
An Odawa war chief
Gained battle experience fighting alongside the French in the Seven Years War
Strong oratory skills and unit diverse Indigenous nations under a common cause
Odawa had long been French allies, and Pontiac maintained strong ties with French traders and military officers
Pontiac had spiritual influence
Odawa were at the center of trade networks
In the great lakes region, giving Pontiac a strong political position
Pontiac’s Promises - to gain support
A return to French support
Restoration of traditional land and power
Wealth from captured British forts
Pontiac gathering support
Pontiac leveraged existing relationships and alliances to spread the call for rebellion
He met directly with leaders from other nations in a series of councils where he:
Explained the dangers of british rule
Appealed to shared frustrations about british policies
Promised a coordinated attack on British forts to drive them out
One of the most important councils took place when Pontiac held a war council near Detroit convincing leaders to join
Did Pontiac need other groups?
Pontiac depended on other Indigenous nations to make the rebellion successful
The British were too numerous and fortified
Limited numbers of Odawa warriors
Geographic challenges
Pontiac needed allies closer to british forts in the ohio valley and Pennsylvania to attack those regions while he focused on Detroit
Odawa Info
Previous alliance: French
Population = 4000
Available warriors = 600-800
Relationship with british: refused to negotiate alliances, settlers flooding into Odawa lands, British no longer provided gunpowder and weapons
Relationship with French: staunch allies of the French, relied on them for weapons
Pontiac’s Rebellion and Legacy
Start of the Rebellion:
Siege of Fort Detroit
Pontiac led hundreds of warriors in an attempt to capture Fort Detroit
After surrounding the fort and laying siege for months, the British attacked Pontiac and his warriors in the Battle of Bloody Run
The British were ultimately fought off and retreated
But pontiac was never able to capture fort detroit
Sparks a wave of indigenous uprising
Battle of Blushy Run
Fort Pitt was under siege by Indigenous warriors and ambushed the british near blushy run
British devised a deceptive retreat, luring the warriors into a trap and they were heavily defeated
Turning point in a favour of the british
Biological warfare:
Intentional spread of smallpox was recorded during this tim
Gave blankets and handkerchief from small pox hospital
End of Rebellion
Pontiac met with British officials and a peace treaty was signed, ending the rebellion
Pontiac’s legacy
Pontiac's influence faded and assassinated
Left an impression that the indigenous nations were powerful, political forces, and Britain needed to negotiate
Fort Michilimackinac
Weakly garrisoned
Staged a lacrosse match for King’s birthday as a distraction outside the fort
Indians chase after ball with weapons cutting english men and scalping
Canadians watched, no action
Indians won massacre
Most British were killed, some prisoners
French inside fort were unharmed
British watched game unarmed
PERSIAT:
Highlights politically and socially how Canadians didn't help
Intellectually attacked a weakly garrisoned fort
English and pontiac were both fighting for power and control economic
Fort Michilimackinac controlled fur trade routes
Indigenous can coordinate well and British underestimate
Siege of Detroit
Pontiac gathered a multi-tribal force
Attempted to enter the fort during a council meeting but british officer leaked the plan so british refused entry
Pontiac began a months long siege of fort detroit
Indigenous forces cut supply lines, ambushed patrols, attacked relief columns
British held out because strong fortifications, access to Detroit river, reinforcements arriving by ship
Siege weakened and Pontiac withdrew
Biological warfare
Jeffrey Amherst approved using smallpox infected blankets to spread disease in indigenous nations
When the french and british signed a peace treaty: france gave almost all its north american territory to britain, indigenous nations not included in negotiations, France stopped supporting indigenous allies, Britain changed policies toward indigenous, ending gift giving and tightening trade
British North America
Royal Proclamation of 1763
Created by King George III
Causes: to stop further rebellions, keep relationships with indigenous strong for trade and alliances, organize colonization to control expansion
Policies: proclamation line of 1763 - land west of appalachian mountains reserved for the indigenous, only the crown (British government) could negotiate treaties with the indigenous, ending land speculation
Province of quebec was established under british rule
French were allowed to speak french, practice catholic faith, but couldn't hold a government job
Land speculation: purchasing vacant land with the intent to sell later at a much higher value
Indigenous: some relocated, gave indigenous nations official land rights
British settlers: angry (in thirteen colonies)
They wanted the ohio valley - they just fought for the british in war
The Quebec Act of 1774
To keep french canadians loyal to britain
Restored french civil law (property, inheritance, business)
Maintained british criminal law
Recognized the catholic church and collected tithes
Expand Quebec's territory including the ohio valley
Did not give an elected assembly
Their secret plan: assimilation of the french culture
Reactions: tensions with the thirteen colonies, didnt get ohio valley, felt like it favoured the french, if french didnt get elected assembly - neither will they
Strengthened french identity
Disappointed there was no elected assembly
Tensions rose with indigenous as more land was taken away
The American Revolution
Colonies divided - 20% were loyalists who were loyal to England
Proclamation Line of 1763
Stamp Act
Britain in debt - Seven Years War
Taxed colonies - goods and services
“taxation without representation”
After protests, repealed
Tea act - protected British tea exports, led to the Boston tea party
Quebec Act of 1774
Impact on thirteen colonies: American Revolution, Declaration of Independence, created USA
Battle of Quebec
Impact on canada
Invasion of Quebec created unity
Many loyalists moved from the US to Canada, building tensions with the French Canadians
What happened at the Battle of Quebec
Benedict Arnold hopes Canada will join as a 14th colony
Benedict arnold: newly appointed colonel of continental army
New england was the center of the rebellion
It was a threat to new england pushed congress to send the continental army north
Americans hoped Iroquois would be neutral, Guy carleton worked to remain neutral
Mohawk was also wary of joining either side
Guy Carleton: british governor who supported mohawk
Neutrality: Indigenous wanted to stay neutral
Mohawk: part of six nations
Congress ordered troops to liberate or conquer canada
Congress convinced to invade canada
Montgomery moves up to montreal
Carleton sneaks to quebec city
Church shut, tithes
Many americans held anti-french and anti-catholic
Montgomery captured montreal while carleton retreated to quebec city
Winter Trek:
Maps were wrong
Maine->quebec city
Lack of clothes, shelters, shoes
Some wanted to quit expedition
Started high spirits, elements fought against them
Arnold + 100 men through 350 miles
Arnold lost ½ of his army
Montgomery brings more people to 600 army
No one surrenders, no easy american victory
Maclean has 1800 toops
Arnold was short with supplies but wanted to force British surrender
Montgomery and Arnold met at the Plains of Abraham
Maclean and carelton organized defenses inside quebec city
Storm became a blizzard
They charged but got struck dead and wounded so they surrendered to plains of abraham
Arnold was hit in leg -> retreat
Montgomery killed and arnold was wounded
Heavy casualties left nearly half of army lost
Pro-british uprising weakened american control
Iroquois stayed distant as british reinforcements arrived
Americans were forced into a full retreat
Tecumseh and Isaac Brock
Tecumseh: A Shawnee Indigenous leader and warrior.
Led efforts to protect Indigenous lands from American expansion.
Why did Tecumseh unite Indigenous nations?
To create a strong alliance against American settlement.
Believed Indigenous peoples would be stronger together.
Who was Isaac Brock and why did he ally with Tecumseh?
British major-general in Upper Canada.
Allied with Tecumseh to strengthen defenses against the United States.
Respected Tecumseh's leadership and military skills.
Windsor Ambush and Detroit
How did the Windsor Ambush change events?
British and Indigenous forces captured important American documents and supplies.
Helped reveal American plans.
Why was Hull's letter important?
It showed that American General Hull feared Indigenous attacks.
Brock used this information to pressure Hull.
Explain the strategy used to force Hull to surrender.
Brock exaggerated the size of his forces.
Indigenous warriors repeatedly marched past the fort to appear more numerous.
Brock warned that he could not control Indigenous fighters if battle began.
Hull surrendered Fort Detroit without a major fight.
What happened to Brock and Tecumseh?
Brock was killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights in 1812.
Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813.
Fort York
Why was Fort York important?
It protected York (now Toronto).
Served as a military and government center in Upper Canada.
What disadvantage did the British forces encounter?
They were outnumbered by American troops.
What did Captain Tito Le Lièvre do to stop the American soldiers?
Ordered the Grand Magazine (gunpowder storage) to be blown up as the British retreated.
The explosion caused American casualties and slowed their advance.
What was the end result?
Americans captured Fort York.
They looted and damaged parts of York before leaving.
Laura Secord and John Tutela
Who was Laura Secord?
A Canadian woman during the War of 1812.
Why would she be considered a hero?
She risked her safety to warn British forces of an American attack.
What did she do?
Walked about 32 km through difficult terrain.
Delivered a warning that helped the British prepare for the Battle of Beaver Dams.
What role did John Tutela play?
Mohawk leader who helped guide Laura Secord to British allies.
Assisted in passing along the warning.
Privateers and Joseph Barss
What is a privateer?
A privately owned ship authorized by the government to attack enemy ships during wartime.
What role did Joseph Barss have in stopping the Americans?
Nova Scotian privateer captain.
Captured American vessels and disrupted American trade and supplies.
Battle of Châteauguay
How many troops did Charles de Salaberry have, and who made up the forces?
About 1,500–1,700 defenders.
Included French-Canadian Voltigeurs, Canadian militia, Indigenous allies, and a small number of regular soldiers.
How did geography help the British?
Dense forests and the Châteauguay River limited American movement.
Trees and defensive barriers protected defenders.
Americans had difficulty seeing enemy positions and coordinating attacks.
What strategy did Charles de Salaberry use to defeat the Americans?
He chose a strong defensive position along the Châteauguay River.
His troops built barriers (abatis) using fallen trees to block the American advance.
He used bugle calls and loud commands to make the Americans think a much larger force was present.
He took advantage of the forested terrain to hide his soldiers.
The Americans became confused and retreated.
Why is the War of 1812 sometimes called Canada's War of Independence?
The war helped prevent the United States from taking control of British North America.
British troops, Canadian militia, and Indigenous allies successfully defended the colonies.
The colonies remained separate from the United States.
The war strengthened a sense of unity among the people living in British North America.
How do you think this shapes Canada's identity today?
It contributes to Canada's identity as a country that developed separately from the United States.
It highlights the importance of cooperation between different groups, including Indigenous peoples, French Canadians, and British settlers.
It encourages pride in Canada's ability to defend itself.
It reminds Canadians of the important contributions made by Indigenous allies during the war.
It helped lay the foundation for the growth of a distinct Canadian nation.
Joseph Brant/Thayendanega’s Negotiating Peace
Joseph brant: mohawk leader of the haudenosaunee
Educated in english
Became a key figure during american revolution war
Sided with british and led indigenous and loyalist forces because he believed it would help protect his peoples land
After the war, mohawk lost their homeland, he helped secure new land along Grand River
Brant thought that the US would stay in friendship after 3 years since peace was made
Brant said that he thought they would be a united continent because the quarrel was not his fault
Brant thought the first step towards peace should be all treaties between them should be a collective voice with no bias from either side
Brant said that it is the US’ fault for not putting an effort to keep peace
He also says that when the US does show good, it is through mischief and confusion
Brant asks the US to stop being unfair, and to prevent surveryors
Brant wants equal peace and effort coming from both sides
Brant said if the US doesnt agree with their request for peace, things will get risky and they shouldnt get blamed if new conflicts happen
The Constitutional Act of 1791
After american revoluton, BNA was to identify the British colonies in North America
European population of the province of quebec
140,000 French
20,000 British
Population gain in BNA after the American Revolution:
2,000 Indigenous
3,500 Black loyalists moved to NS and NB
35,000 loyalists moved to BNA to escape persecution
Most went to Maritimes
10,000-12,000 went to quebec
80%-90% of loyalists stayed in the USA
Causes of Constitutional Act
Arrival of Loyalists
Need to reorganize the territory
Pressure for english-style government
Tension between french and english
British government wanted to ensure loyalists had opportunity
Policies:
Divided province of quebec into upper and lower canada
Upper Canada:
Modern day ontario
British freehold system : own land, no rent, everyone had right to land
English speaking
British laws and institutions
Clergy reserves - 1/7 of all land set aside for the anglican church
Lower canada:
Modern day quebec
Continuation of seigneurial system - seigneurs given land
French speaking
Catholic church
French civil law
Both:
Elected assembly
Limited power
Voting rights: 21 years, own land, tenants could vote if paying minimum rent, land owning women to vote
Government structure
British Monarchy -> appointed the governor (veto power, military, land management, judicial power)
-> appointed the executive council (local authority) and legislative council (appointed for life)
-> legislative assembly can propose laws (elected by peoples)
The War of 1812
US declared war on Britain
Conflict grew out of tensions from Britains war with Napoleonic France
IMPRESSMENT = British Royal Navy forcibly removed sailors from American ships, compelled them to serve in the British naval forces
US argued that AMericans were being unlawfully taken
BRITISH TRADE RESTRICTIONS
Britain wanted neutral countries like the US to trade through British ports before selling goods to Europe
Harmed the american economy, viewed as attack on US independence
Americans supported war because they hoped it would allow the US to expand westward/northward into BNA
Indigenous who resisted American expansion often allied with Britain
Americans viewed alliances as a threat to American security
Tecumseh’s Confederacy
Some indigenous allied with British, some neutral, some divide internally
After AR, Indigenous leaders in Ohio Valley and Great Lakes Region formed Tecumseh’s confederacy (alliance to stop American settlement on indigenous lands)
Led by tecumseh - shawnee leader and military strategist
Tenskwatawa - his brother, spiritual leader “the Prophet”
Battle of Tippecanoe
When tecumseh was away recruiting allies, was attacked by american forces
Tenskwatawa unable to protect the settlement since he was a spiritual leader
American forces burned the town to weaken confederacy
Attack intensified conflict and pushed indigenous to ally with britain
US outnumbered BNA
8 million > 500,000 BNA
US politically divided
Many new englanders opposed war because it disrupted tradee with britain
BNA relied on local militas and indigenous allies
British and Indigenous successfully resisted repeated american invasions
The Capture of Detroit
Early victory for british and indigenous
Tecumseh united warriors from many indigenous nations, led ambushes against americans
Americans retreated and left critical documents
Letter from general hull = fear of indigenous fighters
Tecumseh formed strategi alliance with british general Isaac Brock who promised to support indigenous sovereignty for military cooperation
Used deception by marching indigenous warriors through forest to appear larger
General hull was intimidated so surrendered Detroit
Brock and tecumseh helped defend Upper canada but later killer in battle
The Battle of York and Burning of the Capital
Americans attacked York (toronto)
Fort York protected the town, contained supplies of weapons and ammunition
British and indigenous heavily outnumbered and eventually retreated
British officeres ordered Captain Tito LeLievre to destroy fort’s powder magazine
Explosion killed and wounded americans
After capturing york, amerians looted and burned town
Upper canada grew unity and determination to resist future invasions
Laura Secord and Battle of Beaver Dams
Loyalist in Queenston Heights
Overheard officers discussing plans for surprise attack of british near beaver dams
Secord travelled 32 km to warn british commanders
Encountered Indigenous including John Tutela who helped escort her to British commander where she warned them
Warning allowed indigenous forces and british to prepare ambush
Battle of Beaver Dams: Indigenous fought and forced surrender on Americand
War of 1812 and Privateers
BNA relied on privateers
Privately owned ships authorized by governments to capture enemy vessels
Sailors acted legally under government permission
Joseph Barss: commanded Liverpool Packet and captured numerous American ships and disrupted US trade
This damaged American economy and limited US ability to supply army
Battle of Chateauguay + Montreal defense
Americans tried to capture Montreal - vital british supply+comm.hub
Battle of Chateauguay: Americans outnumbered Canadians 2:1
Charles de Salaberry: French, Indigenous, volunteers,escaped black men who fled slavery in US
De salaberry forced Americans into narrow, wooded ravine and ordered buglers to sound repeated calls to illusionize large reinforcements were arriving
Americans retreated
Outcomes of War of 1812
Treaty of Ghent: restored all borders, prewar state
BNA strengthened shared identity and confidence that contributed to development of Canada
Indigenous: Britain abandoned Indigenous allies, and lost a powerful supporter
Many indigenous faced land loss, population decline, increased american expansion
Tecumseh’s confederacy was destroyed and indigenous resistance in great lakes was greatly weakened
10,000 out of 48,000 were indigenous who fought to defend BNA
Rebellions of 1837
Upper Canada: family compact appointed to councils, land speculation, no agricultural opportunities, division within groups
Lower canada: chateau clique appointed to councils, key industries controlled by british elites, French culture recognized
Lower Canada Rebellion:
Parti Patriote: political group of mostly French Canadians
Democratic reforms
Louis Joseph Papineau: leader
Lord Gosford: Governor seen as oppressive
Goal: to reduce british influence, improve conditions of FC, preserve french culture
Battles:
Battle of St Denis: FRENCH
Battle of St Charles: BRITISH
Battle of St Eustache: BRITISH
Upper Canada Rebellion
William Lyon Mackenzie
Journalist and politician, member of Legislative Assembly
Governor Sir Francis Bond Head viewed as autocratic
Goals: end of monopoly of Family Compact, secure democratic reforms like Responsible Government, govern without influence from British colonial administration
Battle of Montgomery’s Tavern
800 rebels met at tavern to seize Toronto, overthrow government, establish democratic system
Bond Head mobilized 1000-1200 soldiers and militia
Battle was 30 mins
Mackenzie fled to US
Upper and Lower canada under martial law
Hundreds of rebels arrested and exiled, executed or imprisoned
Lord Durham Report
Durham thought that cultural differences caused the rebellions
Durham wanted laws, language, and character to become english
His solution to conflict in lower canada was that the british empire would be predominant over NA continent
Durham was focused on controlling people because he cared that everyone would turn to britain and to only benefit british empires
Durham Report
Lord Durham sent from Britain to identify root causes of unrest, propose solution
Travelled through upper and lower canada interviewing diverse groups
Durhams assessment:
Existing government was outdated and unfair
Cultural divide between French and English Canadians
Durhams recommendations:
Upper and Lower canada unite
Simplify governance
Introduce responsible government
Empower locals, reduce dominance of appointed officials
Promote British culture and immigration
Assimilate french
Act of Union
Created province of Canada
Upper Canada - Canada West 42 seats with 400k
Lower Canada - Canada East 42 seats with 600k
Equal representation in legislative assembly
English sole official language
Responsible government still not achieved
Increased political tension between Canada East and West
Strengthened French Canadian unity
Helped lead to confederation
Responsible Government
Robert Baldwin: Canada West (Upper Canada/Ontario), leader of Reform Movement
Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine: Canada East (lower canada/quebec
Support of the parti patriote but did not support violence
Beginning of responsible government
LaFontaine lost his seat in Canada East
Many french canadia saw him too willing to support english canadians
Baldwin invited and supported him to run in Canada west
Lafontaine won
Baldwin lost his seat in canada west
Lafontaine supports him to run in canada east
Baldwin won
Reformers won the majority in election
Governor general lord elgin asked lafontaine to head government
Lafontaine accepted, if baldwin is a joint leader
Responsible Government
Brought about changes like laws that establish public schools, reorganized municipal government, expanded prisons, and asylums, and broadened voting rights
Continuity: women, poor men, indigenous
Lafontaine and baldwin once in power: restored french as official language, passed rebellion losses bill, put responsibly government to immediate use
Rebellion losses bill outcome: tories attacked the bill for treason and demanded it vetoes. But lord elgin supported it. It fueled riots, and mobs where they burned the parliament building and pelted elgins carriage with stones
Lady Elgin saved the stones to prove that elfin was rioted against and to show future gens
Political Deadlock
Situation where canada west and canada east leaders couldnt agree on legislation which caused the government to repeatedly collapse and prevent any progress
Both regions had equal number of seats even though canada west had bigger population. This created constant stalemates
Goals of canada west: representation by population and pushed for more english speaking protestant leaning policies
Goal of canada east: to protect french language, culture, catholic rights
Canada west: clear grits: rep by population, democratic reforms, power | Conservatives: strong central gov to maintain stability
Canada eat: Parti Bleu: defended FC culture, catholic rights, coop. With macdonalds | parti rouge: radical, want democratic reforms
Coalition: different political parties join together to form a governement. Necessary to break political deadlock
Political deadlock supported the confederation because it made it nearly impossible to pass laws, convincing leaders that the existing system was unworkable, it pushed politicians from both canada east and west to consider confederation to create a more stable and effective gov
Under a confederation, government structure: federal government handling national issues and provincial gov. Handling local matters. This division of powers was meant to reduce conflict between regions and protect local interest
The Great Coalition
Province of Canada was facing serious political instability and deadlock. Governments were constantly failing because political leaders could not agree on how to solve ongoing issues.
The Great Coalition of 1864 brought together rival political groups to work toward constitutional reform. This cooperation helped lead to Confederation and the creation of Canada in 1867. Political Instability in the Province of Canada The Province of Canada was created in 1841 through the Act of Union, which merged Upper Canada (Canada West) and Lower Canada (Canada East) into one colony with a single legislature. Canada West was mainly English-speaking and would later become Ontario, while Canada East was mainly French-speaking and would later become Quebec. Even though the populations of the two regions were different, each region was given the same number of seats in government. During the 1840s and 1850s, large numbers of immigrants arrived from Britain and Ireland, especially in Canada West. This caused a major population increase in that region. By 1861, Canada West had over 250,000 more people than Canada East. Despite this, both regions still had equal representation in government. As a result, French Canadians in Canada East became overrepresented, while English Canadians in Canada West felt the system was unfair. At the same time, political alliances formed across regions, such as French Canadians and Irish Catholics working with Conservatives in Canada West, which further complicated politics. Possible Solutions to the Problem There were several proposed solutions to fix the political deadlock. One idea was representation by population, often called “Rep by Pop.” This system would give each vote equal value, regardless of region or language. It was supported by George Brown, a Reform Party leader from Canada West. However, French Canadians strongly opposed this idea because they feared it would reduce their political power and threaten their culture and religion. Another possible solution was to dissolve the union and separate Canada East and Canada West into two independent colonies. This idea was supported by some radical Reformers in Canada West. However, there were serious concerns about this option. Minority groups could become vulnerable, such as English speakers in Canada East or Irish Catholics in Canada West. There was also fear that the United States might try to take control of the colonies, and Britain did not support weakening its empire in North America. A third option was the idea of a double majority. This meant that any law would need approval from a majority of representatives in both Canada East and Canada West. While this was meant to protect regional interests, it was very difficult to achieve in practice because it required both regions to agree at the same time. The final major solution was federalism. This idea involved creating separate provinces that would be connected by a central federal government. George Brown supported a federal system just for the Canadas, while John A. Macdonald supported a larger federation that would include other British North American colonies, such as the Maritimes and Rupert’s Land. Key Political Leaders Several important political leaders played a role in these debates. George Brown, a Reform leader from Canada West, pushed for representation by population and later supported federalism for the Canadas. John A. Macdonald, a Liberal Conservative from Canada West, wanted to maintain political stability and supported a broader union across British North America. George-Étienne Cartier, from Canada East’s parti bleu, worked to protect French Canadian interests and supported a federal system. Other Reformers, such as Luther Holton and Antoine-Aimé Dorion, also supported constitutional reform and eventually agreed to a federal solution. Little Flower Academy Ad Lucem Social Studies 9 Belong. Believe. Become. Formation of the Great Coalition (1864) The formation of the Great Coalition was influenced by outside pressures. The American Civil War, which took place from 1861 to 1865, increased fears that the United States might invade British North America. At the same time, Britain encouraged the colonies to unite so they could better defend themselves. These pressures made it clear that political stability was urgently needed. In May 1864, George Brown created an All-Party Committee to find a solution to the political crisis. This committee included members from different political groups and was meant to encourage open discussion. In fact, 17 politicians were famously kept in a room until they reached an agreement. During their meetings, they discussed several options, including representation by population, dissolving the union, double majority, federalism, and even keeping the current system. By June 1864, most members agreed that a federal system was the best solution. Later that month, a coalition agreement was reached. John A. Macdonald offered to form an alliance with George Brown, but only if Reformers agreed to join the government. Although Brown personally disliked working with his former rivals, he agreed because of the importance of solving the crisis. The compromise they reached included creating a federal system for the Canadas while also exploring the possibility of a larger union with other British North American colonies. From Coalition to Confederation In September 1864, the Charlottetown Conference took place in Prince Edward Island. It was originally planned as a meeting to discuss a union of the Maritime colonies, but leaders from the Province of Canada attended as well. Their involvement quickly shifted the focus to a much larger idea of uniting all the British North American colonies. One politician, Thomas D’Arcy McGee, described the conference as an “extraordinary armistice in party warfare,” meaning that political enemies were working together peacefully. At the conference, delegates debated ideas, formed alliances, and agreed in principle to create a confederation, although details still needed to be worked out in future meetings. Why the Great Coalition Matters The Great Coalition was important because it ended years of political deadlock in the Province of Canada. It showed that political rivals could put aside their differences and work together to solve major problems. Most importantly, it led directly to Confederation in 1867, which united the Canadas with the Maritime colonies and eventually expanded to include other regions like Rupert’s Land. This moment demonstrated that cooperation and compromise were essential in building Canada.
Confederation
Reasons:
Corn laws repealed
Allowed canadian grain to enter britain with minimal tariffs
US ended the reciprocity treaty with britain which previously allowe trade with reduced taxes
Confederation mean colonies could trade amongst themselves freely
Central government could build an intercontinental railway for both trade and defense
Strong Central government
End political deadlock
Would allow the federal system to concentrate on decisions that affect all regions, like military and transportation
Provincial governments could focus on local matters like education and healthcare
Security:
Western BNA (BC and ruperts land) would be safe from annexation
US has the manifest destiny - belief they had the right to take over NA
American civil war just ended, leavin strong army in the north
Britain had supported the south
Fenian raids: irish immigrants from the US invaded BNA to force British government to release ireland
Thomas D’arcy Mcgee was assassinated - the first political assassination in canada
Conferences leading to confederation
Originally meeting of maritime colonies to discuss a union
New brunswick, nova scotia, PEI
Delegates of Province of Canada asked if they could attend
Shared their ideas of confederation
Agreed to meet again
Quebec Conference:
NB, NS, PEI all attended to look towards a union with canada, and no longer were considering a maritime union
Nfl attended but diidnt participate in conference
Produced QUebec resolutions - blueprint for confederation
NB and NS and Province of canaada and joined
PEI and nFL remained independent
Had to formally ask britain for permission
London conference:
NB, NS, and province of canada attended the london conference
British parliament passed the BNA act creating the dominion of canada
Canadian Confederation:
Federal government would consist of two houses
Lower house (house of commons) representation based on population size
Upper house (senate) would have regional representation
Province of canada would be split into two provinces
Canada east would become quebec
Canada west would become ontario
Railway would be built to link teh maritimes with the toher provinces to transport people and goods
Federal government would be responsible for all dealings with the indigenous peoples of canada
Federal government would take on the existing debts of the individual colonies and would give funding to the provinces based on population size
Station 1: Loyalists After the American Revolution (1775–1783), many people who had remained loyal to Britain left the newly independent United States and moved to British North America. Known as Loyalists, they were often of British background and had supported the British Crown during the war. After the British defeat, many faced hostility, persecution, loss of property, and challenges in their communities, which led them to relocate north. Around 40,000 to 50,000 Loyalists settled in areas such as Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec. The British government helped them establish new lives by providing land, supplies, and support. They built farms, towns, and communities, contributing to rapid population growth and development. Their arrival also influenced political changes, including the division of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, and supported the spread of British laws and institutions. The settlement of Loyalists placed pressure on land and resources and led to significant changes for Indigenous peoples, as land was increasingly taken for new settlements. Station 2: Black Loyalists and Enslaved People After the American Revolution (1775–1783), Black Loyalists—people of African descent who supported the British—also travelled to British North America. Some were free individuals, while others had been enslaved and were promised freedom by the British in return for their service during the war. They left the United States after facing difficult conditions, including ongoing slavery, discrimination, and violence. Black Loyalists settled in places such as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Like white Loyalists, they were promised land and support by the British government. However, they often received smaller and poorer-quality land grants, and in many cases, support was delayed or denied. Black settlers faced significant discrimination, including barriers to employment, unequal treatment, and segregation within communities. In addition to Black Loyalists, some enslaved people were brought to British North America by Loyalist slaveholders. Slavery continued to exist in these colonies for several decades, and enslaved individuals were treated as property, forced to work without pay or freedom. Despite these challenges, Black Loyalists built communities, established churches and schools, and contributed to the growth of the colonies. However, ongoing unequal treatment and unmet promises led some Black settlers to leave Canada in the 1790s for Sierra Leone in West Africa, where they established a new settlement. Station 3: Irish Immigrants During the mid-1800s, large numbers of Irish people immigrated to Canada, especially during the Great Potato Famine (1845–1852). The famine caused widespread starvation and disease when potato crops—the main food source for many Irish families—failed repeatedly. Even before and during the famine, many Irish people— especially Catholics—faced difficult conditions under British rule. They often had limited rights, low-paying jobs, Little Flower Academy Ad Lucem Social Studies 9 Belong. Believe. Become. high rents, and little political power. Many lived in poverty and depended heavily on potatoes to survive. These hardships, combined with the famine, led many to leave Ireland in search of a better life. Many immigrants traveled on overcrowded, poorly maintained ships known as “coffin ships.” Conditions on these ships were extremely harsh, with little food, poor sanitation, and widespread disease. Thousands of passengers died during the journey or shortly after arriving in North America. When Irish immigrants reached Canada, they often passed through quarantine stations such as Grosse Île in Quebec, where diseases like typhus spread quickly. Many families were separated, and newcomers frequently arrived weak, sick, or orphaned. Most Irish immigrants were Catholic and often faced discrimination in predominantly Protestant communities in Canada. They struggled to find jobs, housing, and acceptance, and were often viewed as poor or undesirable. Despite these challenges, Irish immigrants played an important role in building Canada. They contributed to the growth of cities, worked on major infrastructure projects like canals and railways, and helped shape Canadian society and culture. Station 4: European Immigration to Western Canada In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the Canadian government encouraged large numbers of European settlers to move to the Prairies. This period is often called Western Migration, and it focused on expanding Canada westward after Confederation. The government wanted to strengthen control over the land, increase agricultural production, and build a larger population in western regions. Many newcomers travelled from countries such as Ukraine, Germany, Poland, and Britain, settling in what are now Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. One of the main ways the government encouraged settlement was through the Dominion Lands Act of 1872. This system was designed to quickly populate the Prairies and transform the land into productive farmland. Indigenous peoples, who had lived on and used the land for generations, were displaced through treaties and government policies that supported settler expansion. The government also promoted immigration through advertising campaigns. Posters and pamphlets were created and distributed in Europe to attract settlers. However, they did not always show the challenges settlers would face, such as harsh weather, isolation, and the difficulty of farming unfamiliar land. European settlement of the West played a major role in shaping Canada’s development, but it also reflected government priorities that favoured certain groups of immigrants and led to significant impacts on Indigenous communities. Station 5: Chinese and Indian Immigration and Discrimination In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many Chinese immigrants came to Canada. Large numbers were hired to help build the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), especially in the most difficult and dangerous areas through the Rocky Mountains. Chinese workers played an important role in completing the railway. After the railway was finished in 1885, the Canadian government introduced laws to restrict Chinese immigration. One of the most important policies was the Chinese Head Tax, which required Chinese immigrants to pay a fee to enter Canada. This contributed to the separation of families and limited the growth of Chinese communities. Little Flower Academy Ad Lucem Social Studies 9 Belong. Believe. Become. Discriminatory immigration laws also affected people from other parts of Asia. In 1908, Canada introduced the Continuous Journey Regulation, which required immigrants to travel to Canada on a direct, non-stop trip from their country of origin using a through ticket purchased there. Because there were no direct steamship routes from India to Canada, this rule effectively prevented most immigration from India. It also reduced immigration from Japan by restricting common travel routes through places such as Hawaii.
Loyalists
Push: avoid persecution, rebels attack loyalist homes, rebels punished loyalists for not joining rebellion
Pull: land from gov when arrived, quebec defended against american before
Loyalists were promised if they came to canada after revolution 200 acres to children of loyalists when they came of age/married. They had to have to lord dorchester proclamation
Enslaved people were viewed as objects and not real people. There were awards for finding them and they were auctioned
Imperial statute of 1790: household items could be brought into canada but couldn't be sold for 1 year after arrival
Book of Negroes: records 3,000 black loyalists who fought for Britain in AR were promised freedom and land
Black people found hardships, racism, discrimination, when coming to canada
Atlantic crossing from britain and ireland to NA: potato famine, Britain rule caused irish to leave
Traveled in coffinships -> sick and died
Quarantine on Grosse Ile
Irish faced discrimination + hardships in canada
Limited space, sick passengers, no cabins, bad condition
People were on ships, no room, stacked beds
For receiving a grant requirements: head of families males 18+, receive ¼ of dominion lands -> small fee
Canadian gov. Benefitted from dominion lands act
Canadian government was trying to recruit farmers wheat land, virgin, soil, mixed farming, cattle raising
Men with families, white ethnicity, europeans
Chinese head tax: chinese immigrants pay fee of $500 to enter Canada
Continuous Journey Regulation: targeted punjabi, asian. Travellers remain on board for extra months, most sent back to India, south asians community united to fight deportation,
Chinese and Indian experience similar: poor people couldnt come in, discriminated against for not being white, not allowed to come to Canada because of a law directly targeting them
Chinese per person, directly related to money
Indian as a group, indirectly related to money
Indigenous land
Red river settlement: present day southern Manitoba, several cultures but a very strong Metis community
HBC sold Rupert's land; the red river settlement lay in the tracks of the railroad and new settlements
Louis Riel: metis leader in red river settlement
Metis drove out government surveyors and occupied Fort Garry
Established a provisional government
Metis bill of rights
Elected legislature
French and English language rights
Representation in federal government
English protestant settlers tried to overthrow Riel and his government
Thomas scott was arrested, tried, and executed under Riel’s leaderships
Outrage in ontario
Parliament passed the ___________________ ______________, 1870 o __________________rights to Metis (by application) o English and French language rights o Manitoba a ___________________________ (elected government) • Government sent __________________ to Manitoba to settle the area • Riel ____________ to the USA • Riel ____________________ to fight for Metis land rights • Metis not being granted land as _________________________ • Riel was _____________________, _________________ and _______________________ • Legacy as a _________________________ for Metis rights THE INDIAN ACT OF 1876 Video: The Indian Act: A Summary Series of laws to define “_________________ __________________” and their rights o Could be stripped of status (eg. marriage, university educated) Some of these “rights” included: • Federal government controlled “the _________________, _______________, _________________, and ___________________” of First Nations • Created the ______________________ ________________ ____________ • Began the process of language __________________________ by imposing European names
• Created and imposed ___________ __________________ ______________ – external forms of government • _____________________cultural practices such as potlaches and powwows How did the Indian Act put these rights into action: • Management of land – the ____________________ ________________ Video: CBC Kids and Numbered Treaties o 1870’s-1921 Canadian government negotiated _________ treaties to obtain more ______________ for settlers and extract _____________________ o Negotiations needed translators and Indigenous understanding of ____________ agreement what was _________________in English, and what was ____________________ were not the same. • Residential schools o 1884 under Canadian laws, Indigenous children were required by ____________ to attend school o run by Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian, and United Churches o Forced to _____________ ________________ from families, ______________ only English or French and __________________ to practice their own culture and spiritual traditions o Approximately ___________________ children were forced to attend o Difficult to______________ children – some required government issued passes to leave the reserve
Most schools taught ________________ but not academics o Some stripped of names and replaced with numbers o Abused, malnourished, isolated o Estimated _________________ (National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation) children died in residential schools from abuse, illness, suicide, or running away