Terms

The Basics of Rhetoric

• Definition (Aristotle): rhetoric is the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.

• Rhetoric is the art of language (writing or speaking) used to achieve a goal; resources include word choice, figures of speech, and the structure of the piece.

• The Rhetorical Triangle explains how a text persuades: Subject, Audience, Speaker’s Persona (Voice)

The Rhetorical Triangle

• Speaker: the person delivering the message; considers how they present themselves.

• Audience: the readers or listeners; writers speculate about their expectations, knowledge, and disposition toward the subject.

• Subject: what the writer knows, what perspectives they investigate, and what evidence or proofs seem most useful.

• Persona: the character the speaker creates in the writing or speaking; the voice heard by the audience.

Context and Purpose

• Rhetoric is situational: it depends on the context or occasion (time and place).

• Rhetoric also has a purpose or goal that drives the writer’s or speaker’s decisions.

• Context and Purpose guide evidence choice, tone, and structure.

Ethos, Pathos, Logos

• Ethos: appeals to credibility, good will, and knowledge about the subject; connects the writer’s thinking to readers’ ethical beliefs. Credibility and trust are central.

• Pathos: appeals to readers’ emotions and interests; uses personal stories or observations and vivid language to provoke sympathy or emotional engagement.

• Logos: appeals to logic; uses clear premises and proofs; develops ideas with appropriate details to help readers follow the argument.

• These three appeals are the foundation of persuasive rhetoric and are often highlighted together in analyses.

Lou Gehrig’s Farewell Speech (1939)

• Context: Lou Gehrig announced his ALS diagnosis; fans and teammates faced a difficult moment; he gave a short, powerful speech on Appreciation Day.

• Main idea or subject: despite a career-ending illness, he emphasizes being the luckiest man due to a long career and the support of fans and family.

• Speaker persona: presented as a common, grateful man rather than a flawless or highly polished orator; aims to connect with teammates and fans.

• Audience: teammates, coaches, fans in the stands and listening on the radio.

• Purpose: to remain positive, celebrate the life and career he had, and acknowledge the support around him while confronting a harsh reality.

• How Ethos, Pathos, Logos appear:

  • Ethos: credibility built through lifelong playing career and character; trusted by fans.

  • Pathos: emotional appeal through gratitude, humility, and appreciation of relationships and experiences.

  • Logos: logical progression of a life lived with purpose and the framing of his bad break within the broader context of his numerous blessings.

• Notable themes: gratitude, resilience, community, and perspective in adversity.

• Example line (paraphrased): despite a devastating diagnosis, he frames his life as full of honor and reasons to live, underscoring the positive frame of his message.

SOAPSTone

• SOAPSTone stands for Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone.

• It's a framework to plan analysis and essay planning:

  • Speaker: who is telling the story; what details reveal who they are; why the audience should trust them.

  • Occasion: the time and place; context that prompted the writing; larger (environment of ideas) vs immediate (trigger event).

  • Audience: who the piece is directed toward; characteristics and relationship to the speaker.

  • Purpose: what the writer wants the audience to think or do after reading.

  • Subject: the focus or topic of the piece.

  • Tone: the attitude of the author; how diction, syntax, and figurative language shape effectiveness.

Conveying Tone

• Tone is conveyed through:

  • Diction (word choice)

  • Syntax (sentence construction)

  • Figurative language (imagery, metaphors, similes, other rhetorical devices)

Denotation and Connotation

• Denotation: the explicit dictionary meaning of a word.

• Connotation: the associations and secondary meanings that a word carries beyond its literal meaning.

Intention in Rhetoric

• Rhetoric connects intentions with responses; understanding how readers perceive intentions helps reveal where communication succeeds or breaks down.

• Intention is often embodied in a thesis but evolves through the text as ideas develop.

The Goal of an Argument

• To strengthen or weaken someone’s existing beliefs, not simply overturn them.

• An argument is:

  • A method for testing ideas

  • An activity that helps form beliefs and guide actions

  • A process of discussion and deliberation

Counterarguments and Persuasive Techniques

• Counterargument: anticipate objections or opposing views; addressing them strengthens the overall argument (logos).

• Concede: acknowledge that part of the opposing view may be true; this can build credibility.

• Refute: show why the opposing view is false or weaker; strengthens the argument by demonstrating careful consideration.

Rhetorical Devices (figures of speech and patterns)

• Imagery: language that creates vivid images using the senses.

• Metaphor: direct comparison between two unlike things.

• Simile: comparison using like or as.

• Alliteration: repetition of initial consonant sounds.

• Consonance: repetition of consonant sounds.

• Assonance: repetition of vowel sounds.

• Allusion: reference to a prior literary or historical work.

• Anaphora: repetition of a word or phrase at the start of successive clauses or lines.

• Parallel structure: same grammatical pattern to show equal importance of ideas.

• Rhetorical Question: a question asked for effect, not to be answered.

• Imperative: command or instruction.

• Analogy: extended comparison to clarify or argue a point.

• If-Then clause: conditional statements to emphasize consequences.

• Onomatopoeia: words that imitate sounds.

• Hyperbole: obvious exaggeration.

• Understatement: deliberately minimized statement for effect.

• Foreshadowing: hints of what is to come.

• Affirmation pattern: a sequence of yes-stimulating questions.

• Negative definition: defines something by stating what it is not.

• Verbal Irony, Situational Irony, Dramatic Irony: different forms of irony where meaning differs from what is said, expected outcomes differ from reality, or the audience knows more than a character.

• Paradox: a seemingly contradictory statement that is true.

• Antithesis: juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced form.

• Character Foil: a character used to highlight opposing traits in another character.

• Chronological and Flashback: narrative techniques for presenting time; chronology vs flashback to provide background and motivation.

Point of View

• First Person: narrator is a character in the story, sharing thoughts and feelings.

• Third Person Limited: focuses on one or a few characters’ thoughts and feelings.

• Third Person Omniscient: all-knowing narrator moves between characters.

• Third Person Objective: narrator reports events with no insight into thoughts.

Plot Development and Freytag’s Pyramid

• Exposition: setting the stage with characters, setting, and conflict.

• Inciting Incident: the event that begins the main conflict.

• Rising Action: build-up of events increasing tension.

• Climax: moment of greatest tension or turning point.

• Falling Action: events following the climax leading toward resolution.

• Resolution: the main problem is solved or addressed.

• Denouement: the final explanation or clarification at the end.

• Freytag’s Pyramid: a diagrammatic representation of these elements.

Internal and External Conflict

• Internal (Man vs. Self): a struggle within a character’s mind or beliefs.

• External: a struggle between a character and an outside force (Man vs. Man, Man vs. Nature, Man vs. Society, Man vs. Fate/Religion).

Satire and Propaganda

• Satire: ridicules human weakness or folly to promote social reform; common in political cartoons and shows like The Simpsons.

• Parody: imitation for comic effect, often of a person or work.

• Propaganda: a targeted, agenda-driven message; can be persuasive but may involve exaggeration or one-sided perspectives; carries a negative connotation when used to mislead to support a cause.

Logical Fallacies (common defects that weaken arguments)

• Post hoc (false cause): assuming that because B follows A, A caused B; correlation is not causation; require evidence of mechanism.

  • Example pattern: A occurs, then B happens; conclude A caused B without explanation of process.

• Ad hominem: attack on the person rather than the argument; discrediting by character.

• False Dilemma (False Dichotomy): presenting only two options when more exist; one is eliminated to leave the other.

• Non Sequitur: conclusion does not logically follow from the premises; missing steps or illogically connected evidence.

Notes on Practical Use

• When analyzing rhetoric, identify how ethos, pathos, and logos are used; note the context and purpose to understand why certain devices are chosen.

• Watch for narrative techniques such as chronology, flashbacks, and point of view to interpret motive and meaning.

• Be able to explain why a given argument is strong or weak by examining evidence, logical flow, and audience consideration.

• Consider ethical implications of persuasion, including how tone and language can influence perception and action.

Quick Reference: Key Terms

• Ethos, Pathos, Logos

• SOAPSTone: Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone

• Freytag’s Pyramid: Exposition, Inciting Incident, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action, Resolution, Denouement

• Internal vs External Conflict

• Irony: verbal, situational, dramatic

• Imagery, Metaphor, Simile, Alliteration, Consonance, Assonance, Allusion, Anaphora, Parallel Structure, Rhetorical Question, Imperative, Analogy, If-Then, Onomatopoeia, Hyperbole, Understatement, Foreshadowing, Affirmation Pattern, Negative Definition, Paradox, Antithesis, Foil

• Propaganda, Satire, Parody

• Logical Fallacies: Post hoc, Ad hominem, False Dilemma, Non Sequitur