Environmental Ethics Midterm

This response covers key topics and authors relevant to an environmental ethics midterm, drawing on the provided sources.

Module 1: Moral Status

William Baxter: Baxter advocates for an anthropocentric view, where the ultimate criterion for environmental action is the benefit of humankind1 . He sets forth four goals as testing criteria for solutions to human organization problems, implying his position on pollution stems from how well it serves these goals2 . Baxter explicitly rejects the idea of respecting the "balance of nature" or preserving the environment unless it benefits humans1 . His perspective raises the normative question of "what ought we to do?" but applies this question uniquely to the human mind and world, deeming it meaningless for nonhuman situations1 . The blog highlights his moral status views and anthropocentrism3 .

Clare Palmer: Palmer's work explores various aspects of animal ethics4 . She emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of this field, requiring consideration of animal cognition, emotions, species differences from humans, historical interactions, impacts of human actions, and diverse human attitudes and behaviors towards animals5 . Palmer discusses different ethical approaches, including animal rights views that assert inherent value and basic rights for conscious beings independent of reasoning ability or species4 . She also examines consequentialist approaches, such as utilitarianism, which weigh the costs and benefits of actions in terms of overall pleasure and suffering for all affected beings, including animals4 .... Palmer notes the common belief in special obligations to companion animals compared to wild animals, as suggested by the PETS bill, while utilitarianism might argue for intervention in wild animal suffering if it maximizes overall well-being6 .... The impact of climate change on wild animals and how it might alter our moral responsibilities towards them is another key concern she explores, noting this is a relatively new area of ethical discussion8 .... Palmer also discusses the complexities of providing assistance to wild animals affected by climate change and the debate surrounding human interference in natural processes12 . Her work considers contextual approaches, suggesting different responsibilities toward animals in different contexts13 . The discussion of Marius the giraffe's euthanasia in Copenhagen Zoo provides a case study for considering species conservation, genetics, and human attachment to individual animals5 ....

Paul W. Taylor: Taylor presents a life-centered theory of environmental ethics founded on the attitude of respect for nature15 .... This theory contrasts with anthropocentric views by asserting prima facie moral obligations to wild plants and animals themselves, based on their inherent worth17 .... Respect for nature involves a belief system (the biocentric outlook), an ultimate moral attitude (respect for nature), and a set of moral rules and standards15 .... The biocentric outlook includes the view that humans are members of Earth's community of life on equal terms with nonhumans, that ecosystems are interconnected, that each living thing is a teleological center of life, and that humans are not inherently superior24 . Taylor addresses competing claims between human and nonhuman interests, proposing five priority principles for fair resolution: self-defense, proportionality, minimum wrong, distributive justice, and restitutive justice25 .... The principles of proportionality and minimum wrong apply when basic interests of animals/plants conflict with nonbasic human interests28 .... The principle of distributive justice covers conflicts where all interests are basic28 .... Restitutive justice applies after the use of minimum wrong or distributive justice, requiring compensation for nonhuman organisms28 .... Taylor acknowledges that these principles may not resolve all conflicts and introduces the ethical ideal of harmony between human civilization and nature to guide decision-making in hard cases36 .... He argues that adopting the attitude of respect for nature is a justifiable moral commitment21 ....

Aldo Leopold: Leopold is known for his land ethic, which expands the boundaries of the moral community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or "the land" collectively45 . His ethic affirms their right to continued existence, and in some places, in a natural state45 . Leopold suggests that current education focuses on self-interest rather than obligations to the land, resulting in environmental degradation despite increased education46 . He identifies an "A-B cleavage" among conservationists: Group A sees land as soil for commodity production, while Group B views it as a biota with a broader function47 . A land ethic reflects an ecological conscience and a sense of individual responsibility for the health of the land, where health is the land's capacity for self-renewal47 . The blog highlights the land ethic and its application to invasive species48 .

Lily-Marlene Russow: Russow explores why species matter49 . She critiques traditional analyses for failing to address conceptual confusion and relying too heavily on aesthetic or anthropocentric values49 .... Russow examines test cases involving endangered species to challenge standard objections to treating animals differently based on species membership52 . She argues that our obligations toward individual animals should be balanced with the value of preserving species49 . The loss of a species can be a greater wrong than the loss of individual members, especially when the species has unique characteristics or plays a crucial ecological role50 .... She suggests that our obligation to protect vanishing species might be stronger than our duty to prevent harm to individual members of more common species49 .

Kyle Whyte: Whyte focuses on Indigenous perspectives on environmental justice, particularly the concept of kinship with nature54 .... He discusses how environmental injustices can be seen as disruptions of kinship relations with other species and natural entities like water and land54 .... Whyte highlights examples from the Great Lakes region where ancestral kinship traditions are central to Indigenous peoples' relationships with species like walleye, deer, wolves, and wild rice58 .... He emphasizes the importance of reciprocity in these relationships59 .... Environmental justice from an Indigenous perspective involves advocating for these kinship relationships and addressing the impacts of environmental harms on them56 . The blog agenda also mentions discussion of Whyte's view on kinship disruption and water issues55 ....

Robin Kimmerer: Kimmerer emphasizes the covenant of reciprocity with the natural world and the concept of the honorable harvest48 .... This involves taking only what is needed, minimizing harm, using everything taken, and offering gratitude for the gifts of nature48 . Her work aligns with Indigenous perspectives on environmental ethics, highlighting the interconnectedness and mutual obligations between humans and the environment61 ....

Module 2: Population Debate

Toby Ord: Ord's work in population ethics explores the complex question of whether underpopulation or overpopulation poses a greater threat to humanity63 .... He considers both the benefits and costs of increasing population, including potential for technological advancement versus environmental limits and resource distribution64 . Ord raises the conceptual issue of whether adding population adds intrinsic value to the world65 . His article draws on a philosophical area concerned with the moral implications of different population sizes and future generations63 .

Garrett Hardin: Hardin's essay, "The Tragedy of the Commons," describes a situation where individuals acting rationally in their own self-interest deplete a shared resource, even when it is not in their long-term interest or the interest of others66 . He argues that in a commons, the benefits of adding one more animal to graze accrue to the individual owner, while the costs of overgrazing are shared by all users of the commons66 . Hardin suggests that for problems like pollution and population growth, which can be viewed as commons issues, "freedom to breed is intolerable" and that "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon by the majority of the people affected" might be necessary66 . He cautions against relying on purely technical solutions for problems that are fundamentally rooted in human behavior and social arrangements66 .

Module 3: Environmental Justice

Robert Bullard: Bullard is a key figure in the field of environmental justice, focusing on the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards on communities of color and low-income communities67 .... His work, including "The Mountains of Houston," examines racial disparities in the siting of waste facilities and access to recycling67 .... Bullard argues that these disparities are often greater than economic disparities and not entirely explained by them67 . He highlights that access to recycling and the quality of recycling facilities are crucial environmental justice issues69 . The blog notes that Bullard's SMU slideshow provides numerous examples of racial disparities67 .

Luke Cole and Sheila Foster: Cole and Foster's book, "Environmental Racism," delves into the phenomenon beyond simply the unequal distribution of environmental hazards68 .... They argue that while the pattern of disproportionate siting of waste facilities in marginalized communities provides evidence of environmental racism, it's crucial to understand the structural processes underlying these distributional outcomes70 . Their case study of Chester, Pennsylvania, illustrates how a former industrial town populated by low-income people of color became a magnet for toxic waste facilities due to social, political, and economic factors70 .... Cole and Foster emphasize that unequal distribution is an entry point for exploring these underlying institutional and social processes70 .... They discuss how waste facility siting decisions often rely primarily on technical criteria and environmental assessments of individual facilities, without considering the cumulative impact or the demographics of the targeted community73 . While some states have incorporated "soft criteria" like demographics and community opposition into their assessments, the weight given to these factors is often unclear, and mitigation of negative socioeconomic impacts is rarely mandated74 .... Appendix A of their work provides an annotated bibliography documenting the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards by race and income67 ....

Peter Wenz: Wenz introduces the Principle of Commensurate Benefits and Burdens (PCBB), which suggests that those who benefit from an activity should also bear the associated burdens68 .... He argues that environmental injustices, such as the disproportionate placement of Locally Undesirable Land Uses (LULUs) like waste facilities, violate PCBB because wealthy neighborhoods often benefit from consumption while poorer communities bear the environmental burdens68 .... Wenz supports PCBB as a principle of distributive justice76 .... He considers exceptions to PCBB, such as inheritance and gifts, where justifications exist for the imbalance of benefits and burdens77 . Applying PCBB to environmental issues highlights unfair situations like affluent countries shipping waste to poor countries and present generations causing burdens for future generations through pollution and resource depletion77 . Wenz addresses the market forces objection, which argues that market dynamics, rather than intentional discrimination, lead to the concentration of LULUs in poor areas68 .... He likely responds by arguing that even if market forces play a role, the resulting disparities are still unjust and require intervention to achieve a fairer distribution of environmental benefits and burdens68 .... The "LULU point system" is mentioned as a potential way to comply with PCBB78 ....

Kevin DeLuca: DeLuca offers a critique of the environmental justice movement, suggesting that environmentalists might be focusing too much on it54 .... He authored "A Wilderness Environmentalism Manifesto: Contesting the Infinite Self Absorption of Human Beings"84 . The blog notes that this perspective was written in 2007, so some information might be outdated84 . The agenda for a Wednesday session includes the question of whether environmentalists are focusing too much on environmental justice, alongside discussion of DeLuca's work54 .