Study Notes on Reformations and Religious Wars, 1500-1600

Reading Questions

Question 1: Definition of Predestination and Foreknowledge

  • Calvin's Definition of Predestination:

    • Calvin defines predestination as the eternal decree of God by which He has immutably determined the fate of every person before the creation of the world. This sovereign act assigns some to eternal life (the elect) and others to eternal damnation (the reprobate), irrespective of their foreseen actions or merits. This doctrine, often termed "double predestination" or "unconditional election," asserts that God's absolute and mysterious will is the sole determinant of an individual's spiritual destiny.

    • It is a cornerstone of Calvin's systematic theology, notably articulated in his seminal work, Institutes of the Christian Religion. This doctrine profoundly emphasizes God's absolute sovereignty and divine initiative in salvation, stressing that human beings are entirely passive in this process. According to Calvin, fallen humanity is totally depraved and therefore unable to earn salvation or influence God's decree through any good works or faith; rather, faith and good works are themselves viewed as a gracious gift from God and are evidence of election, not its cause. This theological framework underscores that salvation is a singular act of divine grace, not human effort, ensuring that all glory redounds to God alone.

  • Foreknowledge:

    • Foreknowledge is understood by Calvin as God's eternal, perfect, and comprehensive knowledge of all events and actions—past, present, and future. While acknowledging God's omniscience, Calvin carefully distinguishes divine foreknowledge from predestination. He argues that God's knowledge of who will be saved or damned does not cause their salvation or damnation in the same way His active, determinative decree of predestination does.

    • Calvin insists that God's foreknowledge does not impose a necessitating coercion upon future events in a manner that infringes upon human responsibility, even though He knows all things with infallible certainty. The exact relationship between divine foreknowledge and human free will remains a complex and debated theological point within Calvinism. It is often reconciled by understanding foreknowledge as God's perfect awareness of what will freely occur given His providential ordering of all things, without denying humanity's moral agency and accountability for their choices, which God foresaw from eternity.

Question 2: Jewish History and Predestination

  • Evidence from Jewish History:

    • Calvin posits that the history of the Jewish people serves as a profound and compelling example of God's predestining grace and election. He highlights the special, unbreakable covenantal relationship between God and Israel, which was established not based on their worthiness, numbers, or initial merits, but solely on God's gratuitous and sovereign choice, as articulated in passages like Deuteronomy 7:6-8.

    • The unique experiences of the Jews—chosen by God from among all nations, delivered from Egyptian bondage through the Exodus, given the divine Law on Mount Sinai, and repeatedly disciplined yet ultimately preserved as a distinct people—all illustrate Calvin's belief that God's election is an act of unmerited grace. Their protracted history, marked by moments of faithfulness and rebellion, divine judgment and restoration, demonstrates a continuous unfolding of God's sovereign purpose through both election and consequential suffering. This sustained divine interaction, regardless of human performance, validates Calvin's conviction that God's choices are not contingent upon human conditions but upon His eternal, unsearchable plan, serving as a prototype for the election of the Church (the new Israel) in the New Testament.

Question 3: God's Election and Human Worthiness

  • Mistake of Binding Election to Human Merit:

    • Calvin argues that it is profoundly erroneous and indeed a theological heresy to link God's election to the worthiness of individuals or to their merit through works. Such a view, he contends, fundamentally undermines the core Protestant concept of divine grace (Sola Gratia) and God's absolute sovereignty, thereby denying the truth of man's fallen state and total depravity.

    • To suggest that human actions, virtues, faith (as a human initiative), or choices could influence God's eternal decree would imply that salvation is earned or cooperatively achieved (synergism), thus diminishing the enormity of God's unmerited favor. Calvin vehemently emphasizes that salvation is based solely on God's sovereign, free choice, made entirely independent of any foreseen human goodness or merit. Human actions, including faith and good works, are seen not as prerequisites for election but critically as evidence and results of it. They are the spontaneous outflow of a life transformed by the Holy Spirit after one has been chosen and effectually called by God (sanctification). This theological stance reinforces the idea that human actions do not influence God's eternal decisions regarding election, stressing instead the profound mystery, unconditionality, and unilateral nature of divine love and justice, safeguarding God's glory as the sole author of salvation.

Ignatius of Loyola and the Society of Jesus

Background on Ignatius of Loyola

  • Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556):

    • Born Íñigo López de Loyola in Azpeitia, Gipuzkoa, Spain, to a noble Basque family, he initially pursued a career as a Spanish nobleman and soldier. His life took a dramatic turn during his recovery from a severe leg injury sustained in the Battle of Pamplona in 1521. While confined to his bed at the family castle, he had no romantic fiction to read and instead turned to religious texts, specifically a life of Christ and the lives of saints. This period of intense reading and reflection led to a profound transformative religious experience—a spiritual awakening and a complete reorientation of his life towards God and service to the Church. He experienced visions and spiritual illuminations, especially at Manresa, which laid the groundwork for his spiritual methodology.

    • Inspired by his conversion experience, he devoted himself to rigorous spiritual disciplines and theological study. He later gathered a small group of companions in Paris and, with them, founded a new monastic order, the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits, which received papal approval from Pope Paul III in 1540. The order was structured with a military-like rigor and dedication, focusing intensely on comprehensive education, global missionary work (e.g., Saint Francis Xavier), and unwavering, almost absolute, obedience to the Pope. As a spearhead of the Counter-Reformation, the Jesuits aimed to combat Protestantism and spread Catholic doctrine. Their motto, Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam ("For the Greater Glory of God"), powerfully reflects their commitment to active, intellectual, and spiritual service in the Catholic Church, rapidly expanding their influence across Europe and new colonial territories.

Loyola's Rules for Right Thinking

  • Purpose of the Rules:

    • Ignatius of Loyola's "Rules for Right Thinking" (also known as "Rules for Thinking with the Church" or "Rules for Sentiments with the Church") constitute a crucial concluding section of his seminal work, The Spiritual Exercises. These rules are meticulously designed to inculcate in individuals a profound sense of loyalty, orthodoxy, and unwavering adherence to the teachings and authority of the Catholic Church. Their primary purpose was to prepare individuals, metaphorically as "Christian soldiers," for zealous service in the highly contested religious landscape of the Counter-Reformation era. They promote strict intellectual and spiritual conformity to Catholic doctrine and absolute obedience to the Church hierarchy, especially the Roman Pontiff, as a bulwark against the perceived errors and divisions sown by Protestantism.

    • The rules emphasize fostering a mindset of internalizing Catholic principles, defending them vigorously, and acting in perfect conformity with them. They were critical for maintaining unity, combating dissenting Protestant ideas that challenged traditional authority, and strengthening the collective Catholic identity during a period of intense theological conflict and ecclesiastical upheaval.

  • Key Rules:

    • First Rule:

      • "All judgment laid aside, one should have a readiness and willingness to obey the true Spouse of Christ, which represents the holy Mother Church." This rule stresses the paramount importance of profound intellectual and spiritual submission to the judgments and teachings of the Catholic Church without reservation, particularly as articulated by the Pope and councils. It implies that individual reason, personal opinion, and even scriptural interpretation must be subordinate to ecclesiastical authority, especially in matters of faith and morals. This radical submission was foundational for fostering unity, preventing theological dissent, and ensuring a cohesive Catholic front against the nascent Protestant emphasis on individual conscience and Sola Scriptura. It asserts that the Church, guided by the Holy Spirit, is the infallible interpreter of scripture and doctrine.

    • Fifth Rule:

      • This rule emphasizes the importance of supporting and upholding the vows of religion, which include solemn commitments to obedience, poverty, chastity, and other evangelical virtues. These vows, central to monastic, priestly, and consecrated life within Catholicism, provide a structured and disciplined path to holiness and service. Loyola highlights their significance as profound expressions of devotion, self-denial, and discipline, reinforcing the Church's traditional ascetic practices. Through these vows, individuals dedicate themselves fully to God, free from worldly distractions, thus strengthening the spiritual and moral authority and effectiveness of the Church's religious orders and clergy, whose example was meant to inspire a renewed piety among all Catholics.

    • Sixth Rule:

      • This rule encourages the veneration of relics of saints, prayer to saints (for their intercession), and the traditional practices of pilgrimages and indulgences. These were precisely the traditional Catholic devotions that had come under severe attack from Protestant reformers who denounced them as superstitious, idolatrous, and commercially corrupt. Loyola, however, staunchly affirms their spiritual value, seeing them as legitimate means of drawing closer to God, honoring holy individuals (who are already in heaven), and obtaining spiritual benefits. Veneration of relics connects believers to the sanctity and miracles associated with saints, while pilgrimages are seen as acts of penance, spiritual growth, and devotion. Indulgences, understood as a remission of temporal punishment for sins already forgiven, are presented as a means to participate in the Church's treasury of merits, thereby reinforcing the sacramental economy and the communal nature of salvation.

    • Eighth Rule:

      • This rule advocates for the appreciation and proper use of church ornaments, vestments, and images (icons, statues), highlighting the significance of their representations and the importance of veneration. Images and sacred vessels are not merely decorative but serve as powerful aids to devotion, teaching tools for the illiterate, and tangible reminders of holy figures, biblical events, and abstract theological truths. In a period when iconoclasm (the destruction and rejection of religious images) was rampant among some Protestant groups (e.g., Calvinists, Zwinglians), Loyola stressed their profound theological and pedagogical value in lifting the mind and heart to God and the sacred. This approach aligns with the Council of Trent's reaffirmation of the veneration of images, recognizing them as honorable and beneficial for piety but not objects of worship themselves.

    • Ninth Rule:

      • This rule states that one should praise all precepts of the Church, actively seeking to defend them rather than oppose them in any way. This injunction calls for an enthusiastic, vocal, and unwavering affirmation of Church laws, doctrines, and practices (e.g., fasting, confession of sins, regular Mass attendance, sacramental participation). It requires believers not only to adhere to these precepts personally but also to become their zealous advocates, countering any criticisms, doubts, or challenges with reasoned defense and unwavering loyalty. This serves to reinforce communal obedience, uphold doctrinal orthodoxy, and present a united and confident front for Catholicism against external critiques, fostering internal discipline and a collective identity during the turbulent Reformation era.

    • Tenth Rule:

      • This rule suggests a proactive and charitable approach to finding and praising the recommendations, methods, and directives of Church superiors and prelates. The underlying idea is that public criticism or fault-finding regarding clerical leadership can lead to scandal, undermine authority, and ultimately harm the unity and reputation of the community of believers. This rule promotes internal harmony, respect for ecclesiastical hierarchy, and discretion by actively discouraging public scrutiny or negative commentary about clerical leadership. Instead, it guides individuals towards actively seeking positive aspects, understanding the intentions of superiors charitably, and maintaining a united front against external challenges. Any perceived flaws or disagreements are to be addressed privately and respectfully to preserve the cohesion, credibility, and good name of the Church, especially when its authority was being severely questioned by widespread Protestant movements.