Module 12

Final module serves as an end of term review with quiz questions drawn randomly from previous quizzes.
Topics of study questions are provided for those writing a last Research Report, which also serve as preparation for the final exam.

In 1823, President James Monroe issued a warning to European powers regarding political intervention in the Americas.
- Monroe Doctrine: Established U.S. interest in shaping the new republics that gained independence from Spain.
- Monroe's warning indicated that any foreign intervention would be perceived as hostile.
Despite this warning, the U.S. was not yet powerful enough to impose its will on European powers in 1823.
Over the 19th century, the U.S. grew economically and militarily, enabling it to exert dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

Most Latin American colonies gained independence in the early decades of the 19th century; however, challenges followed independence.
Brazil, colonized by the Portuguese, achieved independence later than Spanish colonies.
Similarities between Spanish and Portuguese colonial histories: both had the same religion, political systems, and Latin cultures, and faced similar challenges post-independence.
- Impact of 300 years of colonization was felt throughout Latin America regardless of the timing of independence.

Newly independent countries in Latin America faced numerous challenges, primarily due to a lack of republican government examples.
- The United States, having established its independence in 1776, was a notable example but culturally and politically distinct from Latin America.
Development of political and social structures differed across regions:
- Countries like Mexico and Argentina, pivotal in Spanish colonial power, were better prepared politically than regions like Bolivia and Honduras, which were marginalized.
- Spanish cities became new capitals, and land remained concentrated among elites; social divisions from colonial times persisted.
- Control shifted from Spanish rulers to a national elite following independence.

Post-colonial power shifted to the Creole elite, individuals of Spanish descent born in the Americas.
- Despite being descendants of conquistadors, they were previously excluded from the highest colonial positions.
This Creole elite, along with Spaniards who chose to stay after independence, inherited the Spanish Empire's legacy.
- These groups maintained strong opposition against a transfer of power to lower classes.
The Catholic Church, a key player during the colonial period due to its land ownership and influence, retained significant power post-independence.
The military, either developed during the war for independence or emerging afterward, held onto power as a legacy of Spanish control.
As a result, freedom for peasants, workers, artisans, and indigenous peoples was limited, with the elite classes holding onto power into the 20th century.
- The prevalent powers were the landed elite, the Catholic Church, and the military.

Post-independence saw a lengthy transition toward functional democracies and meaningful independence for the majority.
This period coincided with foreign investments arriving from Europe and later the United States:
- Investments primarily directed towards natural resources, agriculture, and commerce.
Latin American countries borrowed significantly to modernize their infrastructure, focusing on projects like:
- Road development
- Port facilities
- Railway construction
Introduction of new industries, including:
- Large-scale cattle ranching
- New commercial crops (e.g., coffee, bananas)
- These economic changes necessitated labor reforms, creating demand for immigrant labor and the introduction of capitalist practices.
The emergence of a modernizing elite seeking social reform challenged the traditional elite.
By the late 19th century, the traditional elite were increasingly defensive due to rising political turmoil and economic pressures.
- Foreign investors and governments leveraged the situation, leading to indebted nations vulnerable to international capital.

Throughout the 19th century, European investors, particularly British, dominated Latin America.
By 1900, the United States emerged as a significant power and became the principal authority in the 20th century within Latin America.
Despite achieving independence from Spain, Latin America has largely continued to operate under the influence of foreign powers into the contemporary era.

Discuss the role of Britain in the challenge to Spanish rule in the Americas.
Discuss the role of the United States in the challenge to Spanish rule in the Americas.
Discuss the plight of the indigenous peoples of Latin America after 300 years of Spanish rule.
Discuss the plight of the people of African descent in Latin America after 300 years of slavery.
Discuss Brazil in the era of revolution and how Portugal maintained control of its colony in South America longer than most Spanish colonies.

Keywords for the upcoming quiz cover all previous modules. Only 10 terms will appear on the quiz, drawn from a broader question pool from earlier quizzes.