Psych 3.1-3.5

Mod 3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology
3.1-1 What three themes have engaged developmental psychologists, and what are two methods they typically use to study human development over time?
developmental psychology: a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan.
cross-sectional study: research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
longitudinal study: research that follows and retestas the same people over time.
Three Major Themes
Nature and nurture
Continuity and stages
Stability and change

Mod 3.2a Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Childhood
3.2-1 What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?
Teratogens: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out of proportion head and distinct facial features.
3.2-2 What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants’ mental abilities?
Newborn Abilities
root
sucking
startle
Grasping reflex
habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
How is habituation used by researchers to explore infants’ mental abilities?
3.2-3 During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?
Maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
adverse childhood experiences (ACEs):
Brain Development:		Motor Development:
critical period: an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.		fine motor: involving small muscles of the body gross motor: involving large muscles and whole-body movement
3.2-4 How does an infant’s developing brain begin processing memories?
Answer to above question: we have few or no conscious memories of events occurring before age 4. This infantile amnesia occurs in part because major brain areas have not yet matured. Despite the lack of conscious recall, our brains were still processing and storing information. This is evident in individuals who spoke different languages as young children and are able to relearn their sounds ore easily as adults.
infantile amnesia: unconsciously recalling little from before age 4.

Mod 3.2b Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Adolescence and Adulthood
3.2-5 How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect developing teens?
Adolescence: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
Puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.
The teenage brain: very impulsive
3.2-6 What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?
menopause: the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.
emerging adulthood: in prosperous communities, from age 18 to mid 20s
early adulthood: roughly twenties and thirties
middle adulthood: to age 65
late adulthood: the years after 65
Physical Changes: during early and middle adulthood, physical vigor has less to do with age than with a person’s health and exercise habits. Aging also brings a gradual decline in fertility.

Mod 3.3a Gender and Sexual Orientation: Gender Development
3.3-1 How does the meaning of gender differ from the meaning of sex?
sex: in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.
gender: in psychology, the attitudes, feelings and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex.
3.3-2 What are some of the ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?
Male/Female Similarities Age of onset puberty, life expectancy, emotional expressiveness, and vulnerability to certain disorders.		Male/Female Differences Men display more aggression, men have more social power and are more dependent, while females tend to be independent. Women focus more on social connectedness than do men, and they tend and befriend.
intersex: possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.
Aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
relational aggression: an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.
Carol Gilligan’s findings: females tend to differ from males both in being less concerned with viewing themselves as separate individuals and in being more concerned with “making connections.”
What factors contribute to gender bias in the workplace? Differences in perception, differences in compensation, differences in family-care responsibility, social norms, leadership styles, interaction styles, and everyday behavior.
3.3-3 How do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent sexual development?
X chromosome: the sex chromosome found in females and males. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Y chromosome: the sex chromosome typically found only in males. when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
testosterone: the most important male sex hormone Males and females have it, but the addition testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.
estrogen: sex hormones such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.
primary sex characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
spermarche: the first ejaculation
menarche: the first menstrual period
3.3-4 What are some cultural influences on gender roles?
role: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
gender role: a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and women.
sexual aggression: any physical or verbal behavior of sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault.
3.3-5 How do we form our gender identity?
gender identity: our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity.
social learning theory: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
gender typing: the acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine roles.
androgyny: blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics.
transgender: identify differs from what is typical for that person’s birth-assigned sex. Biological influence on gender identity.

Mod 3.3b Gender and Sexual Orientation: The Biology and Psychology of Sex
sexuality: our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to one another.
asexual: having no sextual attraction towards others.
3.3-6 How do hormones influence sexual motivation?
Answer to the above question: during puberty, a sex hormone sure ushers us into adolescence, in adolescent males, higher testosterone levels predict more male-typical traits and disorders.
Hormonal Shifts happen: The pubertal surge in sex hormones triggers the development of sex characteristics and sexual interest. In later life, sex hormone levels fall. For some people, surgery or drugs may cause hormonal shifts.
3.3-7 How do external and imagined stimuli contribute to sexual arousal?

Adverse Effects of Sexually Explicit Material: Accelerating sexual activity Believing rape is acceptable Reducing satisfaction with a partner’s appearance or with a relationship Desensitization
3.3-8 What factors influence teenager’s sexual behaviors and use of contraceptives?
Environmental factors that influence teenageer’s sexual behavior: Social media
Factors that predict sexual restraint: High intelligence, religious engagement, father presence and service learning participation.
3.3-9 How do nature, nurture, and our own choices influence gender roles and sexuality?
Answer to above question: our genes form us, and our culture and experiences shape us, interacting with our biological predispositions may feed gender norms, which can in turn influence our gender roles.

Mod 3.3c Gender and Sexual Orientation: Sexual Orientation
3.3-10 What do we know about sexual orientation?
sexual orientation: according to the APA “a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.”
Answer to above question: sexual orientation is the direction of our sexual and emotional attractions, and the behavior and social affiliation that may result from these attractions.
3.3-11 What biological research helps us understand sexual orientation
Biological influences on sexual orientation: researchers have explored same-sex attraction in other species, gay-straight brain differences, genetic influences, and prenatal influences in humans.

Mod 3.4 Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

3.4-1 How did Piaget broaden our understanding of the way a child’s mind develops, and how have today’s researchers built on his work?

cognition: mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and comunicating Example: Solving a math problem or deciding what to eat for lunch.

schema: frameworks that develop to organize knowledge.( mental shorrcut that helps your brain organize information quickly that fall into two categories.) I

assimilation: when new information doesnt fit into an existing schema you might assimilate it, (Seeing a wolf and calling it a "dog" because it fits the existing schema of a four-legged animal.)

accommodation: Adapting to current schemas and incorporating new information. (Realizing a wolf is not a dog and creating a new schema for wolves while keeping the schema for dogs separate.)this process of adjusting or creating new schemas to fit new informationIt's called accommodation

Piaget’s Theory

*Stage*	*Typical Age Range*
sensorimotor stage: Information is going through senses and motor,Child can perceive but not reason an object permanence is acquired during the stage	0-2 years
object permanence: Awareness that things continue to exist even when it's not received (Peekaboo)	0-2
preoperational stage: Sense of self, egocentrism,Theory of mind, seeing in other perspectives, Lack of conservation.	2-7 years
mental operations (mental symbols): conservation:(7-11 years): Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.A child thinks two identical glasses have the same amount of water but believes one has "more" if poured into a taller, thinner glass. pretend play: (2-7 years): Imaginary scenarios that help develop creativity and understanding. parallel play: egocentrism: (2-7 years): Difficulty seeing things from others’ perspectives.A child assumes everyone sees what they see (e.g., showing you a toy but holding it facing themselves). animism:
concrete operational stage: Ability to think logically about concrete events and grasp conservation and mathematical operations.	7-11
formal operational stage: Abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking develop.	12+

3.4-2 How did Vygotsky view children’s cognitive development?

Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interactions and cultural tools in cognitive development. He believed that children learn through guided interactions with more knowledgeable individuals.

Lev Vygotsky’s Social Child Theory

scaffold: Supportive guidance provided by a mentor or teacher to help a child achieve tasks beyond their ability. ( baking a cake with a friend that knows how, they help you bake it till you one day know how to on your own and you dont need their assistance.)

zone of proximal development:The range between what a child can do independently and what they can do with help. ( LEARNING TO READ: child might know the alphabet but cant read books by themselves yet, with the help of a teacher or skilled other the child starts to read on their own.)

3.4-3 What does it mean to develop a theory of mind?

theory of mind: The ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own. It typically develops during the preoperational stage and is crucial for social interactions.(A child understands that their friend might feel sad because they lost their toy, even though the child doesn’t feel sad themselves.)

3.4-4 How did Piaget and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

Answer to above question:Piaget described adolescent cognitive development as entering the formal operational stage, where abstract thinking and moral reasoning develop. Later researchers highlighted the role of experience, social interactions, and cultural influences in shaping moral development.

3.4-5 How does memory change with age?

dementia: A decline in memory and cognitive abilities caused by brain diseases

Memory changes:Remembering events from childhood more vividly than recent events.

Slower recall of names and information.
Difficulty forming new memories.
Procedural and implicit memory often remain intact longer than explicit memory.


Mod 3.5 Communication and Language Development
language:
3.5-1 How do we acquire language, and what did Chomsky mean by universal grammar? Language acquisition occurs through exposure and innate ability. Chomsky argued that humans are born with an inherent ability to learn grammar, which he called universal grammar.
phoneme: Smallest unit of sound (e.g., "b" in "bat").
morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning (e.g., "un-" in "unhappy").
grammar: Rules governing language structure Correct: "She went to the store." Incorrect: "She go to store."
Semantics: Meaning of words and sentences.Example: "I’m feeling blue" means "I’m sad," not the color blue.
syntax:Rules for sentence structure.Example: Correct: "The dog chased the cat." Incorrect: "Chased cat dog the."
Noam Chomsky universal grammar: All languages have basic structures like subjects, verbs, and objects.
3.5-2 What are the milestones in language development, and when is the critical period for acquiring language?
cooing stage (not in text, but mentioned in CED): a phase of a baby's prelinguistic speech development when they start making single-syllable vowel sounds, like "ooh" and "aah". Cooing usually begins around two months old
babbling stage: (4-6 months)Repeating consonant-vowel sounds. A baby repeating "ba-ba" or "da-da" sounds.
one-word stage: (12 months): Single words with meaning (e.g., "mama").
two-word stage: (18-24 months): Combining two words (e.g., "want cookie").

telegraphic speech: Short, meaningful sentences (e.g., "go park").
gestures: Example: Pointing to a toy to indicate "I want that."
Critical Period for language development: Before age 7. Without exposure to language during this time, full proficiency may not develop.A child exposed to a second language before age 7 often becomes fluent more easily.
Deafness and language development:Delayed exposure to sign language can result in similar challenges with language acquisition as spoken language.A deaf child exposed to sign language early can develop complex language skills comparable to spoken language.
3.5-3 Which brain areas are involved in language processing and speech?
aphasia: Language impairment caused by brain damage.;A stroke patient struggles to speak clearly or understand language.
Broca’s area: Responsible for speech production (damage results in difficulty speaking).Damage causes slow, halting speech, but understanding remains intact.
Wernicke’s area: Responsible for language comprehension (damage results in nonsensical speech).Damage results in fluent but nonsensical speech, such as "The cat dogged the apple."
3.5-4 What is the relationship between thinking and language, and what is the value of thinking in images?
linguistic determinism:The idea that language determines the way we think. A culture with no past tense in its language may focus less on past events.
linguistic influence: Language affects thought but doesn’t fully determine it. Bilingual individuals think differently depending on the language they are using.
Thinking in images:Visualization helps problem-solving and skill improvement, especially in activities like sports or planning. example:Mentally rehearsing how to play a piece of music before actually playing it on the piano.