Unit 8: Respiratory and Digestive System Summative Quiz Review
Respiratory System Anatomy and Physiology
1. Gross and Microscopic Anatomy/Histology/Membranes of the Respiratory System
Understanding the structure of the respiratory system at both gross and microscopic levels. - Gross Anatomy includes major structures like the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lung territories. - Microscopic Anatomy involves detailed histological structures such as ciliated epithelial cells, alveolar cells, and surfactant-producing cells. - Membranes present in the respiratory system, including pleura membranes surrounding the lungs.
Surfactant contributes to bonding of water which lowers surface tension, making it easier for alveoli to inflate.
2. Functions of Respiratory Structures
Explanation of the varied roles of respiratory components: - Gas exchange: Oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal. - Air filtration, moistening, and warming of inspired air through nasal passages. - Phonation: Sound production via the larynx.
3. Bronchial Tree Structure/Alveolar Sac Structure
Bronchial Tree - Hierarchical organization from trachea to bronchi (first primary bronchus, then secondary bronchus, and last tertiary bronchus) and bronchioles. - Structural changes as the tree branches ( cartilage decrease, smooth muscle increase).
Alveolar Sac Structure - Composed of alveoli; structures where gas exchange occurs, extensive surface area, and thin walls for efficient diffusion.
4. The Respiratory Zone/Respiratory Membrane
Respiratory Zone comprises structures where gas exchange occurs (respiratory bronchioles and alveoli).
Respiratory Membrane is a thin barrier (comprising the alveolar epithelium and capillary endothelium) crucial for diffusion of gases.
5. Events of Respiration: Changes in P vs. V, Muscles Involved
Respiration Process: Involves inhalation and exhalation. - Boyle's Law: Relates pressure (P) and volume (V) of gases: .
Muscles involved: Diaphragm (main muscle), intercostal muscles, and accessory muscles during forced breathing.
6. Significance of Intrapleural Pressure
Intrapleural Pressure is the pressure within the pleural cavity, critical for lung expansion during inhalation and preventing lung collapse. Normal values are typically negative relative to atmospheric pressure.
Must be 0 or negative (less than pressure in lungs); if not abiding to this rule, can cause lung collapse.
7. Respiratory Volumes/Capacities
Understanding various lung volumes: - Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing. - Residual Volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in the lungs after exhalation. - Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Sum of all lung volumes.
8. Gas Transport Mechanisms & The Oxygen Dissociation Curve
Gas Transport: Involves methods by which oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are carried in the blood. - O2 is primarily transported via hemoglobin in red blood cells.
Oxygen Dissociation Curve: Understand its shape and implications for oxygen affinity under varying concentrations of pO2 and pCO2 / pH.
9. Regulation of Respiration
Influences on respiratory rate, including neural inputs from the brainstem and chemical signals (carbon dioxide and pH levels).
Measured using a spirometer (spirometer)
10. Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate: Acute and Chronic
Acute factors: Exercise, altitude, and respiratory infections affecting immediate rate.
Chronic factors: Conditions like COPD, asthma, and the overall fitness level of an individual affecting long-term respiratory health, Emphysema (cannot bring in enough O2)
Acute is something that would fall under flight or flight response.
Carbon monoxide is a better competerior than o2, Carbon Monoxide takes o2 spot in hemoglobin which lowers o2 digestion
Digestive System Anatomy and Physiology
11. Gross and Microscopic Anatomy/Tunics and Functions of Each Structure within the GI Tract
GI Tract structures: Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine. - Each has four tunics: Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis externa, and Serosa, differing in histological composition and function. -
**Esophagus:** Transports food from the mouth to the stomach through peristalsis. -
**Stomach:** Digests food through mechanical churning and chemical action (gastric juices) to break down proteins. -
**Small Intestine:** Main site for digestion and absorption of nutrients; it is where enzymes continue digestion and villi/microvilli increase surface area for nutrient uptake. -
**Large Intestine:** Absorbs water and electrolytes, compacts waste into feces, and stores it until defecation occurs.
12. Anatomy and Functions of Accessory Structures to the GI Tract
Accessory structures include Salivary Glands, Teeth, Tounge Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas. - Roles in secretion of enzymes, bile, and aiding chemical digestion.
Lyzosymes in saliva which defends against foreign agents.
Mouth breaks down carbohydrate bonds within food (chemical) and breaks down food itself into small digestible pieces. (mechanical)
Teeth and tounge used to break down food.
Pancreas gets endocrine hormones released into duct, which gets put into pancreas and spread where it is needed.
Insulin; intakes glucose when glucose is high; If too much glucose is there and insulin cannot take more, liver will take (glucogenesis)
Gluconeogensis; This glucose is used to synthesize ATP, which provides energy for cellular processes and helps maintain blood sugar levels during fasting states.
Gallbladder contains bile that is created by the liver. The bile stored in the gallbladder is released into the small intestine to aid in the digestion of fats, thereby facilitating the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
13. MALT Tissues: Locations within the GI Tract and Functions
MALT (Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue) consists of lymphatic tissues found in several locations: - Peyer's patches in the intestines to defend against pathogens.
Helps destroy any bacteria that enters any surface
Tonsils; situated in the throat, play a crucial role in trapping pathogens that enter through the mouth and throat, thereby helping to prevent infections.
Appendix;
14. Functions of Mastication, Peristalsis, and Segmentation
Mastication: The mechanical breakdown of food by chewing.
Peristalsis: Rhythmic contractions to move food along the GI tract. Breaks down so we can digest it.
Segmentation: Local contractions to mix food with digestive juices in the small intestine.
15. All Secretions and Related Processes Along the GI Tract
Identifying and explaining digestive secretions such as saliva, gastric juices, bile, and pancreatic juices.
16. Secretions (and Functions) by Accessory Structures
Understanding each accessory structure's secretions: - Salivary Glands: Saliva containing enzymes (amylase, lipase). - Pancreas: Enzymes like amylase, proteases, and lipases for carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion respectively. - Liver: Produces bile aiding in fat digestion.
17. Absorption of Nutrients: Where They Go After Absorption
Nutrients absorbed primarily in the small intestine (through pyloric sphincter) (carbohydrates, proteins, fats). Transported via blood to the liver for processing before reaching systemic circulation.
Additional Information: The pyloric sphincter regulates the passage of chyme into the duodenum and prevents backflow from the small intestine into the stomach.
18. Control/Regulation of Digestion
Involves both neural and hormonal signals, including the role of the enteric nervous system and hormones like gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin.
Digestion regulated by Autonomic (vegas nerve in cavity) Nervous system. Hormone affected
19. Bile: Constituents, Synthesis, Storage, Function
Bile: Composed of bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, water, and electrolytes. - Synthesis: Produced by the liver. - Storage: Concentrated in the gallbladder. - Function: Emulsification of fats, aiding absorption.
20. The Defecation Reflex
Reflex action that eliminates solid waste, involving internal and external anal sphincters.
21. Special Characteristics of GI Structures
Rugae: Folds in the stomach lining allowing expansion.
Gastric Pits: Structures in stomach lining containing gastric glands. Causes release of lots of gastric juices to aid in digestion and create a highly acidic environment, essential for breaking down food particles. (Gastrin also produced here). Chemical breakdown of proteins within stomach.
Villi/Microvilli: Adaptations in the small intestine that increase surface area for absorption.
Goblet Cells: Secrete mucus for lubrication and protection.
Sphincters: Ring-like muscles controlling the passage of food at various points in the GI tract.
22. Macronutrients: Classification and Functions
Three main classes of macronutrients: - Carbohydrates: Sugar molecules for energy. - Proteins: Chains of amino acids for tissue building and repair. - Fats: Fatty acids for energy storage and insulation. Nucleic Acids: Molecules composed of nucleotides that store and transmit genetic information, playing a crucial role in protein synthesis and cellular function.
23. Feedback Mechanisms Addressed During This Unit
Homeostatic feedback mechanisms regulating respiration and digestion include:
Hormonal Feedback: Hormones such as insulin and glucagon help regulate blood sugar levels, affecting metabolism.
Neural Feedback: The enteric nervous system and the autonomic nervous system play crucial roles in the regulation of digestive processes and respiratory rate.
Chemoreceptor Feedback: Changes in carbon dioxide and oxygen levels trigger adjustments in respiration rate through chemoreceptors located in the aorta and carotid arteries.
Negative Feedback Loops: When blood sugar levels rise, insulin is released to lower it, and vice versa when levels fall, ensuring stability within the body.
24. Enzymes: Function, Classification
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body. Classified as: - Hydrolases: Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of bonds in larger molecules.
Hydrolases breaks down large groups into smaller groups to make it easier for digestion.
25. Hydrolases: Synthesis Location, Target Substrates, Optimal Conditions
Synthesis Location: Various organs (e.g., pancreas, salivary glands).
Target Substrates: Specific macromolecules like proteins or starches.
Optimal Conditions: Vary by enzyme; pH and temperature affect activity significantly.