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Century Overview: The 17th century saw overlapping mannerism with lasting impacts until around 1750.
Religious Conflicts: Religious and political conflicts were rampant, particularly between Catholics and Protestants.
- Thirty Years' War (1618-1648): Major conflict that sapped the power of the Holy Roman Emperor.
- Holland's Rebellion: Holland rebelled against the repressive Catholic domination of Spain, leading to the division of The Netherlands into Protestant Holland and Catholic Flanders (modern Belgium).

Puritan Migration: From 1620 onwards, Puritans fled religious persecution in Europe and settled in New England.
Execution of King Charles I (1649): This event marked the transition to parliamentary rule in England, impacting religion, politics, and science.
Geographical Colonization: The 17th century also represented an era of significant geographical colonization.
Scientific Development: Notable advancements included discoveries in blood circulation.

Isaac Newton: Recognized for formulating the laws of gravity, which led him into conflict with Catholic King James II.
René Descartes: A French philosopher who emphasized systematic doubt and clear, rational thought, famously stating, "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).
- Conflict Avoidance: He maintained a distance from church conflict by attributing the origin of reason to God.

Astronomic Discoveries: Shifted the Earth's traditional place in the universe with observables emphasizing the sun as the center of the solar system; key figures include:
- Nicolaus Copernicus (Poland)
- Johannes Kepler (Germany)
- Galileo Galilei (Italy)
- Notably, these advancements were met with fierce opposition from the Church, especially against Galileo who faced the Inquisition.
Religious Fundamentalism: Despite scientific progress, fear of the devil and the Antichrist fueled superstition, leading to widespread witch hunts in both Europe and America.

Definition of Baroque: The term is applied to diverse styles, originally a pejorative term derived from Portuguese "Barocco" meaning an irregular, imperfect pearl.
- French use associated it with convoluted medieval logic.
Characteristics of Baroque Art:
- Emotional and energetic compared to prior artistic styles.
- Derived significant inspiration from Mannerism regarding chiaroscuro and theatrical effects while rejecting Mannerist stylization.
- The pursuit of nature's study became pivotal, achieving a new naturalism reflecting scientific advances.
Dramatic Elements: Baroque art included a new taste for action, narrative violence, and a vast range of emotional expression, deviating from Renaissance restraint.
Color and Light: Baroque artworks displayed dramatic contrasts in color and lighting with richly textured surfaces.
Space in Baroque Art: Asymmetrical designs became common, replacing controlled linear perspectives with diagonals, enhancing dynamism in art.
Emerging Genres: Landscape, genre, still life, and allegory rose in prominence within Baroque art, departing from religious contexts seen predominantly before.

Italy as Baroque Epicenter: Originating in Italy, particularly Rome, and attributed to papal patronage that inspired artists and patrons.
Cultural Centers: By the end of the Baroque period, Paris emerged as a new artistic hub, a role it would maintain until WWII.
Architectural Triumphs: Major structures like the completion of Saint Peter's Basilica and the court of Louis XIV in France demonstrated the 17th century's commitment to arts.

Reconstruction Timeline: Started under Pope Julius II in 1503; completion pursued through the Baroque period.
Bernini's Contributions:
- Baldacchino: A monumental canopy above the high altar (Fig. 19.1), fashioned from gilded bronze. Heighted approximately 95 feet (28.96 m). Its design and structure aimed at drawing worshipers towards the altar.
- Twisted Columns: Incorporating designs that harked back to Solomon’s Temple, accelerating the visual effect of the interior.
Spatial Design: Contrast between bronze and marble enhances the experience of worshippers, creating dynamic flavors of light and shade.
Piazza Design: The expansive piazza (Fig. 19.2), capable of holding over 250,000 visitors, showcases Bernini's ingenuity in using ellipses and trapezoids to create welcoming spaces.
- Obelisk and Colonnades: Centrality of the obelisk with travertine columns framing the square, inviting participation from visitors, akin to open arms from the church.

Francesco Borromini: Emerged as a significant rival to Bernini. Known for the distinctly innovative San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (Fig. 19.4) featuring alternating concave and convex shapes.
- Architectural Innovation: The chapel design characterized by an oval shape, asymmetrical approaches, and dynamic movement in wall structures, reflecting Baroque formalism.
French Baroque Architecture: More structured and restrained than Italian counterparts, reflecting the Classical aesthetic. Emphasized geometric regularity aligned with the political monarchy under Louis XIV.
- Louvre Renovations: Renovated with restrained classicism through a collaborative design approach post-Bernini’s rejection. Reflects the evolution of French aesthetic and state politics.
- Versailles Complex: Louis XIV relocated the court to a larger setup at Versailles, converting a hunting lodge into an extravagant palace (Fig. 19.9) replete with lavish gardens and extensive grounds.

Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture: Established by Colbert to promote state-academical imagery supporting Louis XIV’s reign.
- Training and Tradition: Art students learned by copying old masters and observing the hierarchy within art subjects, influenced heavily by Renaissance doctrine.
- Artistic Content Hierarchy: The structure categorized religious sacraments and history painting as the highest forms of art.
- Debates on Artistic Merit: Ongoing disputes between proponents of line versus color, reflected in competing styles from Poussin (line) and Rubens (color).

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: Dominated Baroque sculpture with works like the life-size statue of David (1623) (Fig. 19.13) displaying dynamic movement and narrative engagement.
Baroque Theatricality: Bernini's chapel of Saint Teresa (Fig. 19.15) exemplifies the blending of sculpture and architecture to create immersive viewer experiences combining emotion and religious fervor.
Caravaggio’s Influence: Pioneered innovative narrative techniques within his paintings, capturing everyday life in religious contexts (Boy with a Basket of Fruit, Fig. 19.16; Calling of Saint Matthew, Fig. 19.17).

Artemisia Gentileschi: A significant woman artist of the 17th century, known for her portrayal of violent scenes such as Judith Slaying Holofernes, which reflects Baroque's thematic inclinations.
Broader Context of Women in Art: Discussion on historical recognition of women artists, their contributions, obstacles faced, and their emerging roles in the art world, enriching narratives historically dominated by male counterparts.