Skepticism: Concepts, Responses, and Sources
What is Skepticism
a. Skeptical stance: an epistemic condition of desiring further evidence prior to commitment to either belief or disbelief in a position; akin to doubt.
b. Philosophical skepticism: the epistemic position that knowledge is not possible, that nothing is clear to reason; this position, consistently held, leads to nihilism and ultimately to intellectual despair.
c. Agnosticism: meaning “no knowledge”; often related to skepticism. Agnostics claim to have no knowledge concerning metaphysics. Yet, if one has no knowledge, how does one know how to choose and to act?
d. Fideism: the epistemic position that knowledge is not possible, but one must believe without proof or understanding; consistently held, leads to nihilism and intellectual despair.
Popular Skepticism and Responses
The following are common popular skeptical statements, which stand as roadblocks to conversation, and how one may respond to these statements in order to make progress in dialogue.
1) There are so many views.
R1: There are not many basic views, only two (all or only some is eternal).
R2: There are many degrees of rational consistency with which a basic view is held.
2) It doesn’t matter anyway which view you hold. They are all the same.
R1: This may be true on a practical or psychological level but even here only in the short run.
R2: If large scale, long term differences in human lives are not important then nothing is important, including anything you say.
3) Who is to say which view is right?
R1: It is not who is to say but what is to say.
R2: Reason (the laws of thought in all of us) must be observed if we are to avoid talking nonsense.
4) It is all a matter of interpretation.
R1: That is true, but philosophy does not end here – it begins here.
R2: Every interpretation must be tested for rational consistency.
5) It is all relative.
R1: Yes, it is – to one’s own basic belief.
R2: Basic beliefs can be tested for meaning.
6) I don’t know what I believe.
R1: We do have basic beliefs held more or less consciously.
R2: We can know our basic beliefs by looking at our actions.
7) I’ll go with the flow (the simple, easy, what comes natural approach).
R0: Ok. Go ahead. Perhaps we will meet again.
Sources of Skepticism
Skepticism (intellectual despair) is rooted in our uncritically held assumptions.
1) Informal fallacies
Involves the use of irrelevant appeals as a substitute for the use of reason and logical argument (e.g., ad hominem; straw man; question begging; arguing in a circle; appeal to pity, fear, popularity, etc.).
(see list of informal fallacies)
It assumes that if pseudo-argument does not succeed, no argument will succeed.
2) Tradition and custom
Assumes what we are most comfortable with is true.
Examples: since it has been around a long time, it is true; it is right because that is the way I have been taught; most people I know think and act this way, etc.
This certainty melts in our exposure to other cultures or hardens into prejudice.
3) Common sense
Assumes that appearance is reality (naïve realism).
Examples: the earth is flat; the sun rises in the east; the color of the ocean is blue, green, gray, clear.
Common sense takes the condition of the perceiver for granted.
4) Intuition
Assumes that the natural sign is always accompanied by the reality, or the sign is the reality.
Examples: Truth is beauty, beauty is truth; pleasure and goodness; sex and love; smile (good vibrations) and friendliness.
It assumes this is a morally ideal world.
5) Science
Science is misused and becomes a source of skepticism when its methods are overextended to a philosophical principle.
Subpoints:
i) When empiricism is assumed (all knowledge is ultimately from sense experience – there are no innate ideas of reason apart from experience).
ii) When it goes beyond its empirical boundary (in assuming only natural or material forces must be used to explain phenomena).
iii) When it fails to distinguish data (pure experience) from fact – data interpreted in light of philosophical assumptions.
iv) When it fails to notice that science does and must have philosophical foundations which have to be critically analyzed for coherence of meaning.
v) When skeptical disclaimers (tentativeness and pragmatism) are used to forgo philosophical criticism of its assumptions.
6) Reason
Reason is a source of skepticism when it is misused or not fully used.
i) It is misused when used as a source of truth rather than as a test for meaning.
ii) It is not fully used when it is used constructively only and not first and fundamentally used critically to examine basic assumptions for coherence of meaning.
Exam questions
1) What is the difference between a skeptical stance and skepticism?
2) What are the responses to “there are so many views”?
3) What are the responses to “it doesn’t matter which view you hold”?
4) What are the responses to “who is to say which view is right”?
5) What are the responses to “it is all a matter of interpretation”?
6) What are the responses to “it is all relative”?
7) What are the six sources of skepticism and what is assumed in each?