Exam 2

Chapter 5 - Learning

• Classical Conditioning:

• Key Terms:

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

  • Neutral Stimulus: Initially does not elicit a response.

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally neutral, becomes associated with the US.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

• Stimulus Generalization: Response triggered by stimuli similar to CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Distinguishing between different stimuli.

• Operant Conditioning:

• Reinforcement: Increases behavior; can be positive (adding something) or negative (removing something).

• Punishment: Decreases behavior; can also be positive (adding something aversive) or negative (removing something desirable).

• Primary Reinforcer: Innate; satisfies basic needs.

• Secondary Reinforcer: Learned value (e.g., money).

• Reinforcement Schedules: Patterns that determine when reinforcements are delivered.

• Escape/Avoidance: Learning to avoid unpleasant stimuli.

• Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward the desired goal.

Chapter 6 - Memory

• Memory Processes:

• Encoding: Process of converting information into a usable form.

• Storage: Maintaining information over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

• Working Memory Components:

• Phonological Loop: Handles auditory information.

• Central Executive: Manages and integrates information.

• Types of Memory:

• Declarative Memory: Facts/events (e.g. episodic and semantic).

• Procedural Memory: Skills/activities.

• Amnesia Types: Anterograde (inability to form new memories) vs. retrograde (loss of pre-existing memories).

• Memory Strategies/Barriers:

• Rehearsal: Repeating information.

• Chunking: Grouping information for better recall.

• Interference:

  • Retroactive: New memories disrupt old ones.

  • Proactive: Old memories disrupt new ones.

• Forgetting: Can occur due to various reasons (e.g., interference).

Chapter 7 - Thinking, Language, Intelligence

• Concepts:

• Natural vs. Logical Concepts.

• Prototypes: Best examples of a category.

• Thinking Strategies:

• Trial and Error.

• Insight: Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

• Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures for solving problems.

• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for problem-solving.

• Semantic Network Model: Describes how concepts are interconnected.

• Language Components:

• Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound.

• Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning.

• Syntax: Rules for sentence structure.

• Semantics: Meaning of words/sentences.

• Aphasia Types:

• Broca's Aphasia: Impaired speech production.

• Wernicke's Aphasia: Impaired language comprehension.

• Intelligence Theories:

• Spearman: General intelligence (g factor).

• Cattell: Fluid vs. crystallized intelligence.

• Triarchic Theory (Sternberg): Analytical, creative, practical intelligence.

• Thurstone: Multiple primary mental abilities.

Chapter 9 - Human Development

• Prenatal Stages:

• Germinal: Zygote stage.

• Embryonic: Organ development.

• Fetal: Growth and maturation.

• Infant Reflexes: Basic natural reactions present at birth.

• Puberty: Significant for sexual maturation and developmental changes.

• Attachment/Parenting Styles: Different parenting approaches affect development (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, etc.).

• Developmental Theorists:

• Erikson: Psychosocial development stages; age-related conflicts.

• Piaget: Stages of cognitive development; adaptation components (assimilation, accommodation).

• Kohlberg: Levels/stages of moral development (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional).

• Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development (importance of social interaction in learning).

• Aging and Memory: Understanding memory changes and disorders associated with aging.

• Stages of Grief (Kubler-Ross): Five stages individuals go through when experiencing loss (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance).