Psychological Research Notes

Scientific research is important because it provides evidence to support claims.
Scientific knowledge is empirical, meaning it's based on objective, tangible evidence that can be observed repeatedly, regardless of who is observing.

It's important to determine which information and theories are empirically sound and supported by the scientific community to be an informed consumer.
Facts: Observable realities.
Opinions: Personal judgments, conclusions, and attitudes that may or may not be accurate.

Scientific research advances through the scientific method.
Ideas, in the form of theories and hypotheses, are tested via empirical observations, leading to more ideas that are then tested, and so on.
Two Types of Reasoning:
- Deductive Reasoning: A conclusion is drawn from a set of premises. If the premise is true, then the conclusion must also be true.
- Inductive Reasoning: Starts with observations to construct broad generalizations.

Theory: A well-developed set of ideas that proposes an explanation for observed phenomena.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct; must be falsifiable (capable of being shown to be incorrect).
A hypothesis is a specific prediction, while a theory is an explanation based on lots of testing and evidence.

Clinical or Case Study
- Focuses observation on one person or a few individuals.
- Pro: Provides a deep understanding or insight.
- Con: Difficult to generalize; too specific.
- Generalization: The ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society.
Naturalistic Observation
- Observing behavior in a natural setting.
- Pro: High validity/accuracy of information.
- Con: Difficult to set up and control.
- Observer bias: Unconsciously skewing observations to fit research goals or expectations.
- Inter-rater reliability: Using multiple observers to assess the consistency of observations.

Surveys
- Lists of questions to be answered by research participants.
- Pro: Gathers data from larger samples.
- Sample: A subset of individuals selected from a population.
- Population: The overall group of individuals researchers are interested in.
- Con: Less depth.
Archival Research
- Uses existing research to answer various research questions; relies on past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships.
- Pro: Less time/money.
- Con: No control over what information was originally collected; no guarantee of consistency.

Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research
- Longitudinal research: Data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.
- Cross-sectional research: Compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.
- Cross-sectional research takes less time but is limited by differences that exist that have nothing to do with age.
- Attrition rates: Reduction in numbers, particularly in longitudinal studies.

How do we determine if there is a relationship between 2 things and when there is, how can we discern whether it is attributable to coincidence or causation?
Correlation
- As one variable changes, so does the other.
- Correlation Coefficient: A statistic that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables (ranging from -1 to +1).
  - Closer to 1 (+ or -): The stronger the correlation.
  - 0 = No correlation.
  - +: Variables move in the same direction.
  - -: Variables move in opposite directions.
- Correlation does NOT equal causation.
- Confounding variable: Another factor that causes the movement.
- Illusory Correlation: False correlations; believing a relationship exists when it doesn't.
- Confirmation Bias: Seeking evidence to support a hunch/idea and ignoring contradictory evidence.
- Causation: Cause/effect

Quasi-experimental: When you can't fully control an independent variable; this prevents making definitive cause-and-effect claims.
Ethics: Avoiding infliction of pain or abuse for research purposes.

Statistical analysis
- Determines how likely any difference found is due to chance and therefore not meaningful (significant).
- In psychology, group differences are considered significant if the odds that these differences occurred by chance alone are 5% or less.
Reporting research
- Peer-reviewed journal articles: Read by several other scientists who provide feedback, thus providing quality control.

Terms
- Reliability: The ability to consistently produce a given result.
- Validity: The extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it's supposed to measure.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)
- Any institution receiving federal support for research involving humans must have access to and obtain approval from an IRB.
- IRB: A committee of individuals (including institution administrators, scientists, and community members) to review proposals and approve/disapprove them.
- Informed Consent: A written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, potential risks and implications, stating that involvement is voluntary, and they can discontinue at any time, guaranteeing data will remain confidential.
- Deception: Purposely misleading experiment participants to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful. If deception is used, there must be a debriefing at the end.
- Debriefing: Complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information. Conducted at the end of the study.
Animal Studies
- Reviewed by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).