Late Medieval Art: Evolution from Romanesque to Gothic

  • Rationale for Combining Chapters: Chapters twelve (Romanesque) and thirteen (Gothic) are combined due to their significant commonalities and because the textbook allocates six chapters to Medieval Europe. Given a sixteen-week course format, condensation is necessary to allow sufficient time for Unit four, which covers non-Western territories such as China, Korea, India, Japan, Africa, and the Americas before European arrival.

  • Defining Classical Cultures: In Western cultural history, the term "Classical" (capitalized) refers specifically to Classical Greece and Rome. These are considered peak periods of cultural production.

  • Timeline of Classical Antiquity:

    • Founding of Greece: Approximately seven hundred seventy-six BC.

    • Founding of Rome: Approximately seven hundred fifty-three BC, traditionally attributed to Romulus (one of the twins Romulus and Remus).

    • The Birth of Jesus of Nazareth: Occurred in the year zero in the Roman province of Judea. This event led to the founding of Christianity, considered a modern religion compared to the older ancient pagan religions of Greece and Rome.

  • Late Antiquity (zero- four hundred seventy-six CE):

    • This period begins with the birth of Jesus and ends with the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in four hundred seventy-six CE.

    • It is characterized as a transitional era where the population converted from polytheistic paganism (worship of gods like Poseidon, Apollo, and Venus) to monotheistic Christianity.

    • This religious transition was not immediate; it took approximately five hundred years for the population to shift significantly.

  • Early Medieval Period (four hundred seventy-six CE- one thousand CE):

    • Characterized by chaos and disarray following the fall of the Western Roman government.

    • A power vacuum led to various groups ("barbarians") fighting for control.

    • The establishment of the Feudal System carved the territory into smaller, manageable pieces.

    • Often labeled as a "Dark Age," though medievalists debate this characterization. Cultural production in terms of scale and quantity was lower compared to the Classical period; innovation was stagnant, as if the ability to build large-scale structures (like the Ziggurats, Pyramids, or the Pantheon) had been forgotten.

  • The Late Medieval Period (one thousand- one thousand four hundred CE)

  • Timeline: The Late Medieval period encompasses the years one thousand to one thousand four hundred CE.

  • Artistic Styles: Two distinct styles emerge during this era: Romanesque and Gothic.

  • Architectural Obsession: The period is defined by a return to large-scale architecture and sculpture, specifically the construction of massive churches and cathedrals.

  • The Year one thousand Phenomenon (Metaphorical Comparison to Y2K):

    • Just as people feared the transition from one thousand nine hundred ninety-nine to two thousand (fear of computer crashes/Y2K), Late Medieval Christians faced extreme terror approaching the year nine hundred ninety-nine CE, believing the world might end.

    • Economic Resurgence: When the world did not end on January first, one thousand CE, a surge of gratitude led to significant financial donations to the Church.

    • These funds were reinvested into construction, creating jobs, which increased wealth and fostered a cycle of economic growth and tourism.

  • Social Shifts:

    • While the feudal system persisted, the Romanesque part of this era saw the growth of independent cities and towns through independent charters.

    • This allowed for a burgeoning middle class of tradesmen and merchants who were not bound to the land of a Lord.

  • Romanesque Art and the Pilgrimage Economy

  • Nomenclature: The term "Romanesque" literally means "Roman-like." It was a name attributed later by art historians who noticed that the architecture was a throwback to ancient Roman styles and techniques rather than being original or forward-thinking.

  • Pilgrimage and Tourism:

    • Definition of a Pilgrim: A "religious tourist." This term captures the movement of tens of thousands of people fueled by intense religious passion.

    • Economic Impact: Pilgrims stimulated the economy by staying in hotels, eating at restaurants, and purchasing souvenirs. These travelers fostered the growth of towns and supported monasteries.

  • Relics and Reliquaries:

    • Relic: A body part (e.g., bones), clothing, or object associated with a holy figure (e.g., pieces of the "True Cross" or the "Crown of Thorns").

    • Relics were the primary draw for pilgrims. A church with significant relics, such as those of St. Foy, would attract more tourists and boost the local economy.

    • Reliquaries: Fancy containers for relics, often covered in repoussé (hammered gold) and precious jewels.

  • Church Corruption and Fundraising:

    • The massive influx of money led to some ethical corruption.

    • Indulgences: The sale of pardons for sins. While modern Catholicism involves penance (e.g., saying "three Hail Marys"), the late medieval church might charge a fee (e.g., an anecdotal reference to two hundred dollars) to forgive sins. This was a highly effective but morally questionable fundraising technique.

  • Santiago de Compostela: Located in Northwest Spain, this was the ultimate destination for medieval pilgrims as it was the resting place of St. James.

    • St. James: Revere as a leader of Christian armies against the Islamic Caliphate in Spain. During this time (the Crusades), Spain was divided between Christian and Muslim territories.

  • Romanesque Architectural Design

  • Floor Plan: Romanesque cathedrals utilized a distinctive cross-shaped floor plan, continuing the Basilica shape from late antiquity.

  • Key Vocabulary:

    • Nave: The central path/hallway running down the center of the church.

    • Transept: The crossing arm of the church that creates the cross shape.

    • Apse: The semi-circular end of the church.

    • Aisles: Paths running parallel to the nave to accommodate large crowds.

    • Radiating Chapels: Small circular rooms located off the apse to hold various relics.

    • West Works: A development from the early medieval period where the west facade of the church is made grand and unified.

  • Case Study: St. Sernin in Toulouse, France:

    • A major stop on the pilgrimage route.

    • Capable of holding four thousand to five thousand people (entirely standing room).

    • Utilizes geometry and precise ratios (proportions) similar to Greek and Roman architecture.

  • Limitations of Romanesque Architecture:

    • Darkness: Buildings had heavy, thick, load-bearing walls that could not support large windows.

    • Segmentation: The nave was composed of "Bays."

    • Bay: A structural unit formed by four arches: two transverse arches crossing the nave and two side arches. Most of the weight was concentrated on the four corners.

  • Engineering Innovation: The Groin Vault

  • Barrel Vault: An arch stretched in space to form a tunnel.

  • Groin Vault (Cross Vault): Formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults at right angles (ninety degrees).

  • Structural Advantages:

    • A barrel vault/standard bay is supported by four arches; a groin vault is supported by six arches (adding two diagonal arches).

    • This provides fifty percent more support, allowing the building to be taller and the nave to be wider.

    • Weight Distribution: Because the arches carry the weight, the walls can be lighter, allowing for larger windows and more light.

  • Materiality: Unlike the ancient Romans who used concrete, eleventh-century stone masons developed groin vaults using bricks and mortar.

  • Evolution of Scale:

    • Improved engineering led to naves forty-five feet wide and ceilings one hundred seven feet high.

    • Walls became lighter and interiors appeared more unified.

  • Secular Medieval Art

  • The Bayeux Tapestry (circa one thousand seventy CE):

    • One of the few non-religious, historical works of the era.

    • Format: It is not an actual tapestry but an embroidery.

    • Dimensions: Twenty inches high and two hundred thirty feet long.

    • Content: Commemorates the victory of the Normans over the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings in one thousand sixty-six CE.

    • It documents the transition where the Dukes of Normandy became the Kings of England. It illustrates the entire story scene-by-scene.

  • The Gothic Style: Opus Modernus

  • Definition: The last style of the late medieval period. Architects of the time called it Opus Modernus ("Modern Work"). The name "Gothic" was applied later by Renaissance artists who found the style tacky, busy, and overdone compared to Classical simplicity.

  • Origins: Began in Northern France around one thousand one hundred forty CE and spread throughout Europe by one thousand two hundred CE. It exhibited regional variations (French Gothic, Italian Gothic, German Gothic, English Gothic).

  • Historical Context:

    • A turbulent time featuring the Hundred Years War (France vs. England) and the Great Plague.

    • Paradoxically, secular cities flourished, forming the nucleus of society and spawning merchant classes and universities.

    • The Catholic Church and the Pope reached the height of their power.

  • Architectural Hallmarks:

    • Pointed Arches: Unlike the rounded Romanesque arches, pointed arches are the definitive characteristic of Gothic architecture.

    • Light as Divinity: Abbott Suger (of the Church of Saint-Denis, or Sohn-Den-ee) championed the idea that light represents the presence of God.

    • Stained Glass (Lux Nova): Meaning "New Light," stained glass was used to fill cathedrals with colored light.

  • Case Study: The Church of Saint-Denis:

    • Considered the first truly Gothic building.

    • Features groin vaults everywhere to maximize window space.

  • High Gothic - Rayonnant Style:

    • Seen in Sainte-Chapelle (St. Chappelle).

    • The architectural goal of letting in light is fully realized; walls are essentially removed and replaced entirely with stained glass vaulting.

  • Questions & Discussion

  • Inquiry: Can we imagine the social panic of the year nine hundred ninety-nine CE compared to the modern Y2K?

  • Response: For the Late Medieval Christian, the turn of the millennium was a time of extreme religious concern and literal fear of the end of the world. The relief of survival fueled an entire era of building and economic prosperity.

  • Inquiry: Why do we call them Romanesque and Gothic if the people of the time didn't?

  • Response: These are retrospective labels. Art historians identified the Roman influences in the earlier period (Romanesque) and later critics (Renaissance era) used "Gothic" as a derogatory term for a style they perceived as chaotic or non-classical.

  • Inquiry: What happened to the skills used in the Classical period during the Early Medieval era?

  • Response: It is often described as if they "forgot" how to build at scale. The instability of the period (barbarian warfare, lack of central government) prevented the innovation and labor organization required for massive stone architecture until the stability of the year one thousand allowed for the Romanesque resurgence.