The quotation from Charles Lindbergh emphasizes the significant opposition of the American people to entering war.
The learning objective highlights the focus on similarities and differences in attitudes regarding the nation's role in the world during the interwar period.
Historical Context
The United States experienced widespread disillusionment following World War I due to:
The war's devastation.
Europe’s postwar challenges.
The rise of communism in the Soviet Union, leading to fears about becoming involved in European conflicts again.
The period saw Congress reject joining the League of Nations, marking a return to isolationism.
Nonetheless, the approach was characterized as unilateralism rather than a full retreat to Gilded Age policies:
Involved military interventions, private investments overseas, and occasional treaties.
These efforts to avoid another global conflict ultimately failed.
Post-World War I Agreements
Republican presidents in the 1920s aimed to promote peace by arranging disarmament treaties.
Washington Conference (1921)
Initiated by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes to discuss naval disarmament and Pacific conflicts.
Attendees included representatives from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, and Portugal.
Resulted in three key treaties:
Five-Power Treaty:
Established a ratio for naval battleships:
United States: 5
Great Britain: 5
Japan: 3
France: 1.67
Italy: 1.67
Agreement to not fortify possessions in the Pacific (except for Japan).
Four-Power Treaty:
Commitment by the U.S., France, Great Britain, and Japan to respect each other's territorial integrity in the Pacific.
Nine-Power Treaty:
All nine countries recognized and agreed to uphold the Open Door policy regarding China's territorial integrity.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
Initiated by American peace activists, notably Jane Addams, the pact aimed to outlaw war as a national policy.
Signed by most nations but ineffective due to:
Allowing defensive wars.
Lacking enforcement mechanisms against violators.
Business and Diplomacy
Republican administrations believed that pro-business practices would ensure both domestic prosperity and enhance international relations.
Latin America
Mexico:
U.S. investors expressed concerns due to Mexico's 1917 constitution, which mandated government ownership of natural resources.
Resolution achieved by mediator Ambassador Dwight Morrow in 1927.
Other Latin American Policies:
Coolidge kept troops in Nicaragua and Haiti, withdrawing from the Dominican Republic.
U.S. investments doubled from 1919 to 1929.
Middle East
The significance of oil reserves was recognized; U.S. Secretary of State Hughes secured drilling rights for American firms against British competition.
Economic Measures
The Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922):
Increased duties on foreign goods by 25%, intended as protection for U.S. businesses but contributed to a global economic slowdown affecting European recovery.
War Debts and Reparations:
Prior to WWI, the U.S. was a debtor nation; post-war status reversed to that of a creditor with over $10 billion lent to Allies.
U.S. insisted on full repayment from Britain and France despite their financial hardship and the burdens of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany.
Dawes Plan (1924): Facilitated a cycle of payments:
U.S. banks loaned money to Germany.
Germany paid reparations to Britain and France.
Britain and France paid war debts to the U.S.
Legacy of Debt:
Most nations failed to repay debts, leading to resentment between Europe and the U.S.
Herbert Hoover’s Foreign Policy
Hoover’s approach reflected isolationist sentiments dominant in the 1930s:
Sought friendly relations with Latin America, ending interventions in Nicaragua and Haiti.
Japanese Aggression in Manchuria (1931):
Japan defied the League of Nations and committed aggression by invading Manchuria, leading to concerns about global peace.
The League failed to take effective action, indicating its ineffectiveness in maintaining stability.
Stimson Doctrine (1932):
U.S. refusal to recognize any regime established by force, related to the Nine-Power Treaty.
Franklin Roosevelt’s Policies (1933–1939)
Early presidency focused on domestic economic challenges rather than foreign policy but initiated improved relations with Latin America (Good Neighbor Policy).
Outcome of the Seventh Pan-American Conference involved a pledge against intervention in Latin America.
Cuban Relations:
1934, the Platt Amendment was nullified except for a U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay.
Mexican Oil Incident (1938):
Roosevelt advocated for negotiations rather than intervention during land seizures by the Cárdenas government.
Recognition of the Soviet Union:
1933: U.S. established diplomatic relations with the USSR to bolster trade and economy.
Gradual diminishment of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements (1934):
Enabled tariff reductions to stimulate international trade.
The Rise of Fascism and Militarism
Global economic downturn contributed to the rise of authoritarian regimes:
Benito Mussolini in Italy (1922):
Established a Fascist regime through nationalistic and militaristic ideals, intimidating opponents.
Adolf Hitler in Germany:
Leveraged economic turmoil and anti-Semitic sentiments to rise to power, introducing the Nazi Party as a fascism equivalent.
Japanese Militarism:
Promoted invasion of China and Southeast Asia to secure resources under the guise of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
American Isolationists
Isolationism became the dominant U.S. attitude, fueled by disillusionment from WWI and events of fascist aggression.
Led to the adoption of Neutrality Acts to avoid involvement in conflicts:
Neutrality Act of 1935: Prohibited arms shipments and travel on belligerent ships.
Neutrality Act of 1936: Prohibited loans to belligerents.
Neutrality Act of 1937: Made it illegal to ship arms to parties in the Spanish Civil War.
Spanish Civil War (1936)
Seen as ideological battle between fascism and republicanism.
Roosevelt sympathized with Loyalists but couldn't provide aid due to neutrality laws.
America First Committee (1940)
As WWII began, isolationist Americans formed this group opposing pro-British policies, promoting a non-interventionist perspective.
Prelude to World War II
Aggressive actions led by fascist regimes ramped up tensions:
Ethiopia (1935): Mussolini's invasion went unchallenged by international forces.
Rhineland (1936): Hitler faced no consequence for defying the Versailles Treaty by remilitarizing the area.
Sudetenland (1938): Munich Agreement allowed Hitler's annexation and became emblematic of appeasement.
Quarantine Speech
Roosevelt attempted to shift public opinion regarding aggression, proposing that democracies should act together to deter aggressors. The plan met with backlash and was abandoned.
World War II Outbreak
Following the remilitarization of Czechoslovakia, fears solidified about Hitler's ambitions, prompting Britain and France to commit to defending Poland.
Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939): shocked the West, allowing Germany to invade Poland unhindered.
Invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939)
Marked the official start of World War II with total military action against Poland, leading to declarations of war by Britain and France.
U.S. Entry into War
Initial isolation faded as Roosevelt maneuvered to aid Allies while maintaining neutrality until circumstances pressured a shift.
Lend-Lease Act (March 1941): Allowed U.S. aid to Britain on credit, shifting away from previous neutrality concepts.
Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941): Defined a turning point, catalyzing a full entry into World War II,
Significant casualties and damaged naval assets shifted public opinion towards war.