Young People in European Forests
European Forests
Europe, when viewed from space, stands out as a green oasis compared to other continents. Unlike the global trend of forest decline, Europe's forests have expanded since the 18th century. The relationship between European society and its forests is evolving, shifting from prioritizing raw material extraction to emphasizing ecological aspects like ecosystem and landscape conservation. This transition is largely due to Europe's economic privilege, allowing it to move beyond timber production as the sole purpose of forests. In contrast, poorer regions face pressure to convert forests into agricultural land to address starvation and fuel needs.
Forest Diversity
Despite initial similarities, European forests exhibit significant local and regional variations. Distinguishable zones include:
Northern and mountain spruce forests
Expansive pine forests
Diverse multi-species forests in highlands and mountains
Extensive riparian forests
Mediterranean evergreen macchia bushes
Remnants of ancient forests
Each forest type is unique, influenced by tree species, flora and fauna, habitat fertility, land management practices, and forest policies, which can be shaped by multiple countries.
Historical Context and Forest Management
The pattern of settlement in Europe, starting 8000 years ago in the southeast and spreading to the north 6000 years later, is closely tied to forest resources. Medieval times saw the disappearance of oak and cedar forests due to survival needs.
Systematic forest management emerged in Western Europe around the middle of the last millennium, with Northern Europe following 200-300 years ago. Many forests avoided exploitation during industrial development. Sustainable forest management practices were adopted later, providing a steady income stream. Traveling north reveals the impact of climate and geological age on forests, mirroring the postglacial period.
Forest Cover and Influencing Factors
If land use were abandoned, forests would cover approximately 90% of Europe, excluding mountains above the tree line, coastal sand dunes, and major river areas. Only the steppes north of the Caspian and Black Seas, with limited rainfall, rival European forests. The proportion of forest cover varies across European countries, with mountainous, less populated countries having higher percentages.
Historical human settlement patterns, influenced by terrain (mountains, swamps), climate, soil fertility, and deliberate decisions (hunting grounds), have shaped today's forests. In southern Europe, cattle breeding has limited forest regeneration, with forests cleared for timber, fuel, and farmland. Deforestation led to soil erosion on mountain slopes, resulting in barren land suitable only for sheep and goat herding. Consequently, 90% of Europe's primary forests have disappeared.
Later settlements in the north favored fertile soils in valleys and plains for farmland, leaving less accessible slopes and wetlands as meadows and pastures. The 18th and 19th centuries saw significant changes due to mining, railway development, and the growth of paper and textile industries, leading to mass deforestation. Trains facilitated wood transport, and wood was used in chemical processing.
Forest Cover Statistics and Regional Variations
Forest cover ranges from 86% in Finland to 7% in Ireland, averaging 35% in Western Europe and 47% continent-wide. However, these percentages don't fully reflect the role of forests in each country's landscape.
High forests are found in inaccessible areas with low populations, such as the Norwegian inland. In Italy, only ¼ of the 29% forest cover consists of high forests, with the remainder being plantations, firewood trees, macchia, and bush areas.
Similar situations exist in other Mediterranean countries, where climate, soil, and history have confined forests to areas unsuitable for crops. Upland and mountain countries like Slovenia and the Alpine region have higher forest cover due to the soil-protective function of forests, preventing mudslides and avalanches. A single large tree can hold up to liters of water, and multilayered forests can retain up to 85% of rainfall, reducing floods.
Forest Loss and Composition
Countries like the United Kingdom and Ireland have low forest cover (around 10%), despite historically dense deciduous forests. Only remnants of these natural forests remain, preserved as natural monuments. Other areas are covered by coniferous forests for timber production.
Western and Central Europe have similar forest cover (around 30%), composition, and structure. Native species dominate, but fast-growing trees like pine and spruce were introduced in the 19th century. Some forests retain their ancient grandeur due to rulers preserving isolated areas for hunting.
Examples include Białowieża Forest in Poland and Belarus, and New Forest in Hampshire, Great Britain, protected since the 11th century.
Forest Ownership and Its Impact
Forest ownership influences forest quality, distribution, and exploitation. European countries can be divided into three groups based on public forest percentages. Scandinavian countries, France, and Austria have predominantly private forests, with public forests not exceeding 30%. Public access to private forests is generally unrestricted, with some exceptions. In contrast, Ukraine and Belarus have entirely state-owned forests.
Access restrictions are common in countries with less forest cover and traditions of collecting forest fruits. Forest ownership affects forest policy, with state ownership facilitating non-profit policies for societal well-being. It is more challenging to incentivize private owners to prioritize nature conservation over profit. Single ownership of large areas enables effective protection from wind damage through spatial structures and fire prevention through observation networks.
Reconstructing tree stands is a long-term action undertaken without immediate financial gain. The importance of these reconstructed stands is not measured in monetary terms.
Forest Formations and Climate Influence
European plant formations have a distinctive layout shaped by oceanic and continental climates. South of the Arctic tundra, conditions favor forest vegetation. This vegetation starts with shrubs and sparse birch forests in Scandinavia and Russia. Further south, the taiga consists of conifers (spruce, pine, fir) and birch. Deciduous species like aspen, elm, alder, maple, and lime become more common towards the equator. Western Europe lacks a taiga zone but features unique vegetation along the Atlantic coast, such as moors with beeches and oaks. Mediterranean vegetation, dominated by sclerophyllous, evergreen thickets, is found on the Mediterranean shores and southern Iberian Peninsula.
Latitude and altitude influence forest composition. Southern Europe has forests at higher altitudes (up to meters in Bulgaria) than Northern Europe (up to meters in Scotland).
Economic activity has altered the original European vegetation, particularly in central and southern Europe.
Forest Cover and Species Diversity
Natural vegetation covers only 10% of the British Isles (including heathland and bog), compared to 90% in northern Scandinavia and Russia, areas unsuitable for agriculture. Forest species diversity is influenced by geographic position and forest management policies.
For the past 200 years, European forestry favored monospecific coniferous stands (mainly spruce and pine), reducing mixed and deciduous forests. Current tree stand reconstruction efforts aim to create more naturally adapted forests. Mixed forests cover about 14% of European forest area, with the largest shares in Malta (60%), the Czech Republic (56%), Latvia, and Estonia (over 40%). Monospecific coniferous forests dominate in northern countries (Scandinavia) and mountain areas (Austria, Germany, Switzerland) due to climate and soil conditions.
Coniferous species sometimes dominate due to economic decisions. In Great Britain and Ireland, Sitka spruce cultivation resulted from long-term forest policy. Deciduous species play a greater role in southern countries like Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia (80%), Hungary, and Italy (70%).
Growing Stock and Sustainable Management
Growing stock, the volume of standing timber at a given time, is used to measure forest resources. It depends on age, composition, structure, and density. The average growing stock in Europe is about , with Ireland, Greece, and Spain below . Alpine countries have higher values due to rainfall and large fir and spruce stands; Austria has , and Slovenia and Germany around . Slovakia and the Czech Republic average due to hill and mountain forests.
Sustainable forest management requires knowing the annual wood volume increase (annual increment). Only 60-70% of the annual increment can be logged each year. Western and Central Europe have the highest growth rates ( per year). Limited growth is due to short growing seasons in Northern Europe and drought in Southern Europe. Longer growing seasons and higher rainfall in the west speed up growth.
Forest Types and Age Classes
Some European forests provide firewood, with tall, thin trees and species that sprout from cut trees. These stands are typically under 30 years old and considered lower category forests, mainly in Southern Europe (France, Italy, Greece). Forests with high trees from seeds and seedlings are the most valuable category, aged between 20-80 years (II-IV class) due to afforestation after World War II. In Europe, 13 million hectares of forests are over 100 years old, preserved due to environmental protection and social pressure.
Age classes are evenly distributed in Switzerland, Luxembourg, the Czech Republic, Finland, and Norway. Ireland has an irregular age structure due to EU-funded afforestation, similar to Portugal, Austria, and Denmark. Germany has a low percentage of young tree stands due to forest cultivation and regeneration. Pine felling ages range from 110-180 years in Nordic countries, 80-120 years in Central Europe, 60-70 years in Hungary, and up to 50 years in Atlantic countries (reflecting growth rates).
Fauna, Flora and Alien Species
Geographical location affects forest fauna and flora richness, with greater species diversity in the south. European forests consist of around 150 tree species, with pine, spruce, beech, fir, and oak covering the largest areas. Depending on the country, 200 to 6,000 vascular plants can be found, with more in southern and eastern Europe and fewer in the north.
The large number of alien species poses a problem. In Northwest countries, introduced species make up an average of 15% of forest areas, but higher in some countries (Ireland, Denmark, Iceland, Great Britain, Hungary, the Benelux countries). Alien species include spruce, Sitka spruce, Douglas fir, various pine species, red oak, robinia, and poplar species. Eucalyptus covers large areas in Spain and Portugal when moisture and temperature conditions are favorable. Invasive alien species like robinia (black locust), black cherry, and Ailanthus altissima are occupying new areas, particularly in the southeast.
Forests are home to half of Europe's mammal species, with the largest populations in south-eastern Europe, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Lithuania. The Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Poland, Scandinavia, and Lithuania also have a large number of nesting bird species, while Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries have fewer.
Forest Management and Conservation
European forests are typically preserved in areas unsuitable for agriculture, with about 4% untouched by human intervention. Determining what constitutes a virgin forest varies among countries. These forests are often located in inaccessible areas like northern Scandinavia, Russia, the Alps, and the Balkans, with Sweden having the most (16%). Few European forests are entirely artificial plantations, with exceptions in countries cultivating alien species (Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, Ireland, France, and Portugal). Finland, Germany, and Austria have no plantations.
Plantations are established for purposes like fast timber production and include soil protection measures. Even in plantations with few tree species and regular spacing, tending treatments can lead to a loss of spacing, resulting in semi-natural forests. In Central Europe, Scots pine forests can become enriched with oak (due to birds) and birch (due to wind).
Afforestation after World War II and the propagation of pine and spruce have led to large areas over-covered by these species. Restoration efforts aim to introduce more deciduous trees and firs by introducing shadow-tolerant species under pine in younger stands or by cutting old stands. Revaluing the role of European forests has led to management methods that do not involve total removal of old trees. Group cutting on small, irregular areas reflects social expectations for forest protection and has led to abandoning clearcuttings for stand regeneration.
However, clearcutting remains necessary for light-demanding species in poor habitats and for natural regeneration of shade-intolerant species.
Wood Demand and Sustainable Solutions
Despite timber production restrictions, demand for wood is increasing in Europe. The European Community faces a dilemma: supporting ecological forestry while meeting growing wood demand. Importing raw materials from outside Europe is one solution, but cheap imported timber often comes from plantations or non-sustainable logging, protecting forests in Europe at the expense of forests in poorer regions.
A more rational approach is multifunctional forest management at the local level, such as certifying wood origin. Certified products ensure proper procedures are followed throughout production, transportation, and processing.
Future Threats and Climate Change
Throughout forestry history, insect pests, natural disasters, and extreme climate changes (drought, strong winds, floods, and frost) have disrupted forest production cycles. Fungal diseases are a modern concern. Seedlings lacking mycorrhizal fungi are vulnerable to parasitic pathogenic fungi. Harmful insects have increased due to large, even-aged monospecies stands. The imbalance and lack of self-defense mechanisms in these ecosystems lead to rapid population increases and disasters.
The largest pest gradation in European forest history, caused by the Nun Moth (Lymantria monacha) in Poland from 1978 to 1984, destroyed about 1/3 of the country's total forest area.
Chemical treatments are costly and environmentally harmful, making prevention through maintaining forest ecosystem balance preferable. Climate change increases the risk of insect gradations. Strong winds regularly cause significant damage to European forests, particularly in mountain areas with man-made spruce forests. Mixed forests consisting of species adapted to local conditions, such as beech and fir forests, are more resistant.
Forest Fires and Their Impact
Forest fires require fuel, oxygen, and a heat source, forming the fire triangle. Fires have devastating impacts in southern countries but increasingly affect other European regions due to lower forest humidity, rising temperatures, declining forest health, and greater human intervention. Unhealthy forests with open canopies allow more light to reach the understorey, promoting grass growth, which then dries out and easily catches fire.
Different types of wildfires include:
Ground fires: slow-burning fires in organic material in the soil
Surface fires: quick-spreading fires burning dry leaves and twigs
Crown fires: fast-moving, intense fires burning from treetop to treetop
In 2003, fires destroyed over half a million hectares of woodland in southern Europe, causing billions of euros in damage. Forest fires are a tragedy for forest ecosystems, threaten lives, and increase carbon dioxide emissions. Four out of every five wildfires are started by people.
Bright Future and Protection Efforts
Despite numerous threats, the future of European forests is promising, with their total area increasing. Forests continue to offer many benefits to people, and society is pushing for reduced productive functions of forest resources. Many European programs exist for forest protection, and European forests are improving.
Nature Conservation and Policy Framework
European policy regarding protected areas stems from the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity and the European Union. The Convention states that parties should establish protected areas or areas with special measures to conserve biological diversity.
International and Pan-European Conventions
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) 1971
The World Heritage Convention 1972
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) 1979
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) 1979
Alpine Convention 1994
European Landscape Convention (Florence Convention) 2000
Carpathian Convention 2003
EU Directives
Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds (Birds Directive) 1979 - later Directive 2009/147/EC
Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (Habitats Directive) 1992
Other Policy Instruments
The London Convention Relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State
European Diploma of Protected Areas
Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB)
European Network of Biogenetic Reserves
Global Geoparks Network
IUCN Management Categories
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as any area of sea, lakes, rivers, or land identified as important for conservation and managed for this purpose. Protected areas may allow industry, agriculture, or fishing, while others prohibit these activities. The IUCN has identified seven protected area categories based on management objectives:
Ia Strict Nature Reserve: Strictly protected areas for biodiversity and geological features, with human visitation strictly controlled.
Ib Wilderness Area: Large, unmodified areas retaining natural character without significant human habitation.
II National Park: Large natural areas protecting ecological processes and providing scientific, educational, and recreational opportunities.
III Natural Monument or Feature: Protected areas for specific natural monuments with high visitor value.
IV Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected areas focused on specific species or habitats, requiring regular interventions.
V Protected Landscape/Seascape: Areas with distinct character resulting from the interaction of people and nature, safeguarding the integrity of this interaction.
VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources: Conserves ecosystems and habitats along with cultural values and traditional resource management systems.
Protected Areas in Europe
About 25% of the EU 27 terrestrial land is protected under Natura 2000 or national designations. The size of designated areas ranges greatly. For the vast majority of nationally protected areas (90%) the area is less than 1.000 ha and 65% range between 1 and 100 ha. Protected areas provide a wide range of services in a context of increasing pressures and a rapidly changing environment.
Natura 2000 Network
Natura 2000 is an EU-wide network of nature protection areas established under the 1992 Habitats Directive to ensure the long-term survival of Europe's most valuable and threatened species and habitats. It includes Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) and Special Protection Areas (SPA). The total area of the Natura 2000 network represents approximately 18% of the total EU terrestrial area, currently comprising more than 26.000 sites. It promotes the sustainable use of resources and consideration of economic, social, and cultural requirements.
The main goal is to maintain or restore a favorable conservation status for target habitats (231 types) and species (over 900 taxa). These bio Geographical regions are used to both build the network and to identify target species and habitat types. This has been accomplished while recognizing the ecological differences within and between EU Member States
Building a network of sites across Europe on the basis of a common methodology, criteria and set of ecological features favors better ecological coherence than if the networks were only organized within each Member State. A European network helps migratory species, and allows for taking into account genetic diversity and ecological variability . It also facilitates the identification and designation of sites across borders that better take into account the natural distribution of species and habitat types.
This network includes provisions for conservation measures and assessments of impacts for projects likely to have a significant effect on the sites. Different EU mechanisms finance it through different EU mechanisms, and it has been responsible for much research activity over the past twenty years.
Ecosystem Coverage and Forest Types
Forest ecosystems take up the largest share of nationally designated areas in EEA countries, followed by agro-ecosystems, grasslands, and marine ecosystems. Mountain areas generally offer greater opportunities for designing protected areas because competition for land use is much lower than in plains or in coastal areas.
Listed in Annex I of the Habitats Directive are over 70 different forest habitat types, of which many are classed as priority. Over 50% are restricted to just one or two countries. Only a handful of the more “common” and well known forest types such as alluvial forests, oakwoods and a variety of beech forests are present in the majority of Member States. Focus is placed on forests of native species, forests with a high degree of naturalness, forests of tall trees, presence of old and dead trees, forests with a substantial area and forests having benefited from continuous sustainable management over significant period.
It is estimated that two thirds of the sites included in the Natura 2000 network have at least one forest habitat type, which suggests they tend to form part of a complex matrix of habitats within a larger area. Many actions focus on restoration to bring forests back up to their original conservational states, also developing management plans in close collaboration with local stakeholders and forest authorities.
Complementarity between designations
Natura 2000 overlaps with nationally designated areas in the 7.7% of the EU land territory. Natura 2000 covers 9.7% of the EU land territory beyond existing nationally designated areas. Natura 2000 contributes to 70% of the total surface area of protected areas within the EU-27.
There are some countries (such as Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovenia, and the United Kingdom) where Natura 2000 nearly always overlaps with national designations (CDDA). This is quite different in Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, and Portugal, where many Natura 2000 sites do not overlap with existing nationally designated sites.
Austria
Austria’s forests cover about half of the country’s federal territory. The growing stock is more than one billion , which offers the potential for sustainable forest management. The Forest Act focuses on protection, timber production, recreation, and social benefits. Main functions: Economic (65%), protective (31%), beneficial (3%), and recreational (1%).
Alpine natural hazards are a serious threat to people in Austria. Forests protect people against these hazards.
Tree Species Composition
The stock in Austrian forests is billion , with of the annual increment is felled every year. Distribution: Spruce, 2% Fir, 5% Larch, Pine 6%, other conifers 1%; Red beech, 2% Oak, 10% other deciduous.
Austria’s forests are habitats for much typical middle European wildlife. Forms of nature protection such as national parks and Natura 2000 sites: About 43% of Austria’s Natura 2000 areas are forest areas. About 2/3 of the forest area can be classified as natural, near-natural or semi-natural.
Six National Parks: Hohe Tauern, Kalk Alps, Gesaeuse, Thaya Valley, Danube Floodplain, and Lake – Neusiedl – Seewinkel.
Estonia
Estonia is situated in the boreo-nemoral zone (transitional zone between boreal and temperate regions). The climate is maritime, with an average annual precipitation of mm. Average temperatures in July and February are and , respectively.
Forests cover around 50% of the total area, or 2.2 million hectares, with a growing stock of approximately 470 million . Estonia ranks sixth in Europe in forest coverage. The proportion of dominant deciduous and coniferous forests is more or less equal, covering 51% and 49% of the total forest area respectively. Roughly 80% of forest land consists of 3 main species – Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris, 32%), Norway spruce (Picea abies, 19%) and Silver and downy birch (Betula pendula and Betula pubescens, 30%).The world’s tallest Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), (46.6 m), grows in southern Estonia in the Ootsipalu valley.
Forest Site Types
Despite of the country’s small size, 45.000 , more than 20 forest site types can be distinguished. The most common forest types in Estonia are:
Mesotrophic forest: well-lighted Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) stands, growing on sandy soils. Stem volume in 100-year-old pine stand may be around 300-350 . Ground vegetation contains mainly shrubs and mosses.
Mesoeutrophic forest: mainly Norway spruce, silver birch (Betula pendula) and mixed-species forests with high soil fertility and high timber productivity. Growing volume may reach up to 600 . From ground vegetation, mainly herbs may be found.
Nemoral forest: the most productive forests in Estonia due to very fertile soils with favourable moisture conditions and the humus layer up to 30 cm. Growing stock may be as high as 700(1000) . Ground vegetation contains of lush broad-leaved herbs.
Swamp forests: the forests growing in organic soils (peat) where the thickness of peat layer is minimum 30 cm and may even reach as deep as 10(17) meters.
Drained peatland forests: formed as a result of an artificial drainage of different swamp forests. Timber quality and productivity of these forests vary in big scale, depending on the duration of the drainage.
Forest covered up to 80% of the country’s territory but by the end of the 19th century it dropped to 30%. agricultural reforms during the Soviet occupation left huge proportions of agricultural land out of use. Area accounts for approximately half of the country’s territory, increased by more than 50% to 476 million . The diversity of forests in Estonia provides habitats for a large number of species.
A total of 55 species are listed as game species: 18 mammal species and 37 bird species. Moose Alces alces, wild boar Sus scrofa and roe deer Capreolus capreolus are the most important game species. Hunted though, under strict control are brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus) and lynx (Lynx lynx).
Game Populations
Hunting bag in 2016 and Estimated populations size in 2017:
Moose (Alces alces): (7390),11410
Wild boar (Sus scrofa): (17610), 5620
Red deer (Cervus elaphus): (1664), 3436
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): (11000), n.e.
Brown bear (Ursus arctos): (55), 700
Wolf (Canis lupus): (114), 200
50% of Estonian forests are state forests, which are mainly managed by The State Forest Management Centre (RMK); another 50% are Private forests. About 75% of Estonian forests are managed. there is a minimum cutting age for tree species (for Scots pine it’s 90 years). For every Estonian there is 1.7 ha of forest. One out of 15 Estonian people work in forestry.
Forest Protection
Ancient Estonian believed in the spirits of nature and considered old forests to be sacred. The first dated act of forest protection was in 1327. 18 % of Estonian mainland and 27 % of Estonian water area covered with different protection areas. Natura 2000 consists of 66 areas for birds and 542 nature areas with total area of 14 863 .
Problems and Climate Change
Climate changes: predicted increasing annual temperatures and precipitation influence forest ecosystems functioning through more frequent storms and heavy rains.Milder climate favours the spread of the indigenous root rot (Heterobasidion spp) and is becoming more common invasive pathogens, such as red belt needle blight (Dothistroma septosporum) on pines or ash dieback (Chalara fraxinea) on deciduos trees
Latvia
The total area of the forest lands constitute more than a half of the territory of the state, and are comparatively natural systems. Approximately half of the forests of Latvia are located on dry mineral soils. However a comparatively large proportion of forests lay also on drained soils.
The forests of Latvia are dominated by three tree species – Scots pine, Norway spruce and birch species (silver and downy birch). The remaining forest areas are occupied by stands of black alder, grey alder, aspen, ash and oak, and other tree species.
Rare and especially protected species in the forests of Latvia are brown bear, dormouse, northern birch mouse and several species of flitter-mouse. smooth snake and swamp turtle; eagle, red and black kite, eagle-owl, roller and green woodpecker. The rare and protected tree species in Latvia is common yew, which occurs mostly along the coastline. A protected species is also common hornbeam.
Protected areas
Latvia has 684 specially protected natural areas - Strict nature reserves, National parks, Biosphere reserves, Nature parks, Protected landscape areas, Nature reserves, Nature monuments
Forests in the National parks and strict nature reserves are managed by the institutions of the Ministry of Environmental protection and regional development, and other state forest property is managed by the Joint Stock Company “Latvijas valsts meži” (“Latvian State Forests” or LVM).
Lithuania
In Lithuania forest area is almost 33% of the total territory, or 2,175.9 thousand ha. Pine and birch stands are the main, but spruce is expanding. In Lithuania, the main forest ecosystems are boreal forests, close to the southern part of the distribution area. There are many habitats under the Habitats Directive. The most frequent forest habitats are the mixed Fagus-Abies forests.
Flora and Fauna
Fauna is typical to the boreal and temperate zones: wolves, lynx and other mammals: a big range of bird species and invertebrate species. Some bird species are migratory species. Endemic or relic species are not typical to Lithuania and protected are all rare and threatened species
Protected Areas
A lot of territories are incorporated in the Natura 2000 network, mainly the forests with priority habitats under the Habitats Directive. Also forests that are habitats for birds and other species of European concern are included in Natura 2000 areas. Five national parks were established with different protection regime, including 30 strict nature reserves were any kind of forest and other management measures are forbidden. There are some more categories of the protected ares (like regional park, nature reserve etc.) that are included in the national network.
Forestry
Almost half of forests is state-owned. Lithuanian forest sector still recovering after the socioeconomic transition. The main problems are damages by browsing animals- ungulates reduce forest natural regeneration and illegal logging causes problems to forest ecosystem and economy problems.
Other local factor like Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) causes damages on tree stands due to the effects of their excrements.
Poland
Forest area in Poland covers 29.4% of the country’s territory with constant increase and State forests manage 77.2% of forests territory
Forest Types
Pine dominates in lowlands, spruce in highlands and mountains (result of clear-cutting). The most interesting flora communities are: oak-hornbeam forests, riparian forests and alder forests. There are different species in different geographical regions.
Fauna
Poland is known for the most diverse and the richest forest biocenose in this part of Europe covering vascular plants, mosses, and lichens. Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and alpine marmot are examples of relict species. Exceptional species: Bison and wolf.
Protected Areas
Nature Protection in Poland includes Flora and fauna species protection, Nature monuments protection, Establishment of nature reserves, Establishment of National parks (Bialowieża National Park - the oldest national park in Poland.), Establishment of Landscape parks, Designation of protected landscape areas and designation of NATURA 2000 sites (2.2 million ha Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and 1.1 million of Special Protection Areas for birds (SPA)). Most sensitive areas have entrance limitations.
Organization of Forestry
In Poland public forests dominates (81,8%), therein State Forests are 94%, which are managed by State Forest National Holding (PGL LP).
Problems
Global warming and changes in the structure of precipitation increase in the share of tree diseases (especially sub- boreal species such as Norway spruce), and problems of Scots pine due to drought. Also climate changes increase the frequency of strong winds and forest fires.
New diseases of forest animals; for example, the population of wild boars is limited due to the presence of ASF viruses.
Portugal
Types of Forests
Portuguese forests are very diverse due to the gradient abundance/drought of water. The gradient goes from the rainier North, to the drier south, or from coastline to inland: Eucalyptus 26%, Maritime pine 23%, Cork oak 23%, Holm oak 11%, Stone pine 6%, others: 11% The Cork oak forests play a key ecological role related with water infiltration on the soil, erosion control, biodiversity and soil fertility. In Portugal grows the oldest and biggest cork oak tree, with more than 230 years old and 16 meters height.
Fauna and Flora
Among protected and endangered species there are the Iberian lynx, the Iberian wolf and the Bonelli’s eagle.
Environmental protection
Public Service of Forestry is responsible for environmental protection. The aim of forest management is to protect all forest habitats and their biodiversity. It also prevents genetic loses, that could reduce trees adaptability. Among solutions, forest should have a long-term strategy, with a focus on forest management and prevention, making forests more resilient to climate change, managing resources to reduce fuel load and continuity and creating policies that allow the resolution of socio-economic conflicts and of land use.
Problems
One key problem area include the forest fires, which cause profound changes. The expansion of forests are caused by the depopulation of rural areas and abandonment of the land and increased fuel load and lack of forest management.
Romania
Service of Forests
Forests provide ecosystem services, renewable sources of other products (game, fish, raw materials). This leads to a constant activity of sustainable development plans, constant awareness on the importance of constant analysis and planning to the responsible use of forests resources. Therefore forests are renewable and have constant benefits.
Area and Species
Forests account for about 27% of the national territory because of the varied different climates. There are 5 geographic bioregions can be found: alpine, continental, pontic, panonian, stepic. The most common softwood species in Romania is the Norway spruce, and with the hardwood species, beech and oak are the most common species.
Fauna and Flora Species
Typically found are: syringa Josikaea, hepatica transsilvanica, dianthus callizonus. Animals: roebuck (capreolus capreolus), red deer (cervus elaphus), wild boar (sus scrofa), lynx (lynx lynx).
Protected and Organization.
These national and natural parks have world recognition for for the biodiversity and natural wildlife, but need protection from people - natural protected areas of different types like National and Nature Parks (some of them having world recognition: Biosphere Reserves or Ramsar sites) Scientific Reserves, Nature Reserves, Natura 2000 sites need continuous legal protection