A History of Indian Literature 500-1399: Foundations and Transitions
Periodization of Medieval Indian Literary History
The medieval period of Indian literary history encompasses an extensive timeframe spanning from the century to the end of the century. While this periodization is acknowledged as imprecise, it is not arbitrary. The selection of the century as the starting point is justified by the emergence of a group of devotional poets in South India known as the Alwars and Nayanmars. These poets established a new literary tradition distinct from the classical Sanskrit and Tamil lineages, representing a major breakthrough. The century is designated as the terminal point due to shifts in literary transmission modes, changes in patronage patterns, a split in readership resulting from English education, and the rise of a new literature that adopted European genres.
For organizational purposes, this long era is subdivided into two parts using the century as a dividing line. By this time, Indian languages had matured into full-grown literary speeches. Major figures such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, Tulsidas, Sankaradev, Sarala Das, Ezhuthachan, Potana, Chandidas, and Narasimha Mehta appeared after the century. Various linguistic, religious, philosophical, and political factors influenced this period, but no single event dominated the entire country's literary production or taste. The literary scene was a wide spectrum, ranging from vibrant and natural to sophisticated and recondite, produced in multiple interrelated or stubbornly separate languages.
The Political Context of Medieval India
During this period, India lacked a stable, centralized power. The Gupta Empire had disappeared by the middle of the century. In the latter half of that century, the Maukharis, with their capital in Kanyakubja, were the dominant power in the Ganges Valley until their destruction. They were succeeded by Harshavardhana (-), a member of the Pushyabhuti family, who briefly held the empire together. Harshavardhana was himself a playwright and a patron of poetry. Winternitz notes that with Harsha, India enters a "strictly firm historical region." Following his death, his empire fragmented, and new dynasties like the Palas of Bihar and Bengal, the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, and the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Malwa and Rajasthan rose to local prominence.
In South India, political stability was also elusive. For years starting from the middle of the century, the history of the region was characterized by conflict between three powers: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madurai. Despite these ongoing conflicts, literature remained largely unaffected, though shifts in regional dominance impacted literary growth. Innovations were driven more by the linguistic landscape and patronage systems than by direct political changes. The literature of this first phase is primarily divided between royal court works for elite readers in Sanskrit and religious literature produced in other languages for temples, mathas, and monasteries.
The Linguistic Scene and the Evolution of Apabhramsa
Significant linguistic changes became visible around the century. Linguists categorize Old Indo-Aryan (OIA) from the Vedic hymns (- B.C.) to the time before Gautama Buddha (- B.C.). The Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA) period stretched from B.C. to A.D., divided into the first MIA (- B.C.), transitional MIA ( B.C. - A.D.), second MIA ( A.D. - A.D.), and third MIA ( A.D. - A.D.). Medieval literature was produced across the MIA and the New Indo-Aryan (NIA) periods, the latter starting around - A.D. Most modern Indian languages, except Tamil (which has a continuous history), emerged as distinct speeches around the century, though Kannada traces back to the Halmidi inscription of the century and Telugu to inscriptions from A.D.
The final stage of MIA (- A.D.) is known as the Apabhramsa period. Historically, the term denoted sub-standard or corrupt speech, as used by Patanjali in the century B.C. Dandin in the century described it as a dialect of the Abhiras raised to literary status. Scholars like Anandavardhana and Rajashekhara recognized it as a literary language; Rajashekhara used a metaphor where Sanskrit is the face of literature, Prakrits the arms, and Apabhramsa the thighs. Suniti Kumar Chatterji defines Apabhramsa as a late MIA speech younger than dramatic Prakrits but older than modern vernaculars. While Sauraseni Prakrit became a scholar's interest, a "Sauraseni Apabhramsa" developed for mass literature. Apabhramsa was prevalent across India and, though not exclusive to Jainism, was heavily used by Jain scholars for hagiographies and philosophical works.
The Role of Sanskrit and the Decline of Pali
Sanskrit remained the essential pan-Indian bond for cultural unity, serving as a national language despite political disunity. Burrow argues that as local dialects diverged, Sanskrit provided necessary cohesion. Even Buddhists and Jains, who initially resisted Sanskrit, eventually adopted it, with Jain Sanskrit being influenced by earlier Prakrit literature. The medieval period saw the continuation of court poetry traditions, with poets like Sriharsha, Bhavabhuti, Bhartrihari, Bharavi, Dandin, and Amaru following in the wake of Kalidasa. Sanskrit dominated until the and centuries when it began yielding to regional bhashas.
Conversely, Pali largely ceased to be a language for creative literature during this period. Buddhaghosha, living in the or century, is considered the last great Buddhist writer in Pali. Later works like the -century epic Padyachudamani or the -century poem Jinacharita by Medhankara are rare exceptions. S.N. Dasgupta notes that later Hindu philosophy was influenced by Buddhist schools but not specifically by Pali Buddhism, as he found no evidence of Hindu writers being acquainted with Pali. While Buddhist centers like Nalanda persisted until the century, the language of creative output had shifted away from Pali.
Tamil as a Classical and Modern Medium
Tamil is unique for its uninterrupted history, with the relationship between ancient and modern Tamil compared to Attic and modern Greek. Middle Tamil, emerging around the century, differed significantly from Sangam Tamil in grammar and vocabulary. Caldwell observed that classical Tamil poetry is as unintelligible to unlearned speakers as Virgil's Aeneid is to a modern Italian peasant. However, the perception of linguistic continuity remains strong. In the medieval period, Tamil served as a powerful vehicle for the Bhakti movement, which used the language to bridge the gap between elite and popular audiences.
Unlike Sanskrit, which was limited to the educated upper classes (similar to English in modern India), Tamil possessed greater homogeneity among its audience. While the Pallava and Chola kings supported Sanskrit, the Saiva and Vaishnava saints initiated a movement that made Tamil a metaphor for Saivism. Sambandhar's poetry describes the Lord as the meeting point of Tamil and "northern words" (Sanskrit). Despite a -century split between the southern (then kalai) and northern (vada kalai) Vaishnava schools over language preference, Sanskrit hegemony was never fully eliminated. In Kerala, the hybrid language mani-pravala combined Sanskrit and Malayalam, demonstrating a collaborative response to the prestige of Sanskrit.
Authors, Patrons, and the Modes of Literary Transmission
In a society with limited literacy, literature was transmitted orally by professional storytellers, singers, and performers. Private reading was rare, and manuscripts were expensive, leading religious institutions and the wealthy to maintain libraries. Memorization was the primary tool for preservation; students often memorized entire works to transport them geographically. Professional scribes and performers served as the bridge between authors and audiences. Literature produced in royal courts was intended for a small, elite group of courtiers, whereas temples offered a broader venue for all social classes to hear poets or singers.
Authorship was dominated by the educated upper class. Many court poets were Brahmins, such as Bhavabhuti, who came from a family of Veda scholars, or Bana and Dandin. Some authors were royalty themselves, like Sudraka, Harsha, and the prince Vishakhadatta. Even among South Indian saints, many were Brahmins or from royal families (e.g., Kulasekhara Alwar), though saints like Appar and Nammalwar were of Vellala origin, and Tiruppan Alwar came from a low-caste background. Female writers like Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Andal, and Mahadeviyakka were notable but rare. Poetry often featured complex linguistic acrobatics, puns, and alliterations to garner quick audience responses, and the eroticism in some Sanskrit works was frequently a response to the tastes of royal patrons.
The Classical Heritage and the Two Epics
The medieval era inherited a vast literature produced over years. While Vedic and Upanishadic traditions were restricted to Brahmin circles, their imagery and concepts—such as the sense of the infinite and psychic imagery described by Sri Aurobindo—infiltrated the cultural psyche. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata served as the primary links between the ancient and medieval worlds, undergoing transformations while retaining their moral complexity. They became truly pan-Indian through translations and reincarnations in regional languages. While Buddhist and Jain literature lost some freshness, their story traditions continued to inspire later works.
Indian literature maintained two streams: intense philosophical concern and an attachment to mundane life. These were balanced in the epics. While asceticism was valued, the literature was not purely life-negating. The Dhaniya Sutta of the Suttanipata illustrates this balance through a dialogue between the farmer Dhaniya, who finds happiness in his boiled rice and obedient wife, and the Buddha, who finds joy in being free from passion and worldliness. Kalidasa represented the pinnacle of this synthesis, combining a hedonistic appreciation for beauty and love with an intellectual passion for culture, ethics, and ascetic self-mastery.
Religious Foundations and the Puranic Tradition
The medieval period saw the decline of Buddhism and Jainism as Brahmanical religion became dominant, characterized by image worship, elaborate rituals, and temple construction. The concept of the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwara) represented a spirit of reconciliation between sects. This era was also marked by tensions between Saivism and Vaishnavism, as well as the rise of Shaktism. These systems were founded on the Puranas and the Agamas. Tamil Saivism was specifically grounded in Agamas and the -century Saiva-Siddhanta texts. Vaishnavism found its emotional roots in the Alwars' poems and its theological base in the Bhagavata Purana.
The Puranas, a group of major texts, molded the medieval mental landscape through stories of gods and genealogies. The influential list includes the Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Siva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahma-Vaivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, and Brahmanda Puranas. These were sectarian, often categorized as Saiva, Shakta, or Vaishnava. For example, the Brahma-Vaivarta Purana features Radha, while the Markandeya Purana includes the Devi-Mahatmya (or Chandi), which reached its current form no later than A.D. and contains verses. Additionally, Upa-puranas (secondary puranas) were composed to support popular Hinduism and provide a treasury of myths for the medieval society.
Sacred Geography and Regional Realism
Despite political fragmentation, the epics and Puranas fostered a perception of a unified India through a shared "sacred geography." This geography included holy rivers such as the Ganga, Yamuna, Narmada, Godavari, and Kaveri; mountains like the Himalaya, Vindhyachala, and Venkatagiri; and cities like Ayodhya, Mathura, Kashi, Kanchi, and Ujjayini. Sacred sites like Kurukshetra and the Purushottama Kshetra (Puri) were central to the cultural map. Medieval literature often saw an interpenetration of this mythical geography with real-world regional locations. While supernatural elements and miracles were common in hagiographies, works like Kadambari and Dashakumara Charita displayed astute observations of social milieu, and later Buddhist Sahajiya poetry introduced a refreshing proximity to nature and real life.
Philosophical Streams: Sankara and Ramanuja
The ideological foundations of the medieval period were primarily established by two philosophers: Sankara (-) and Ramanuja (- century). Sankara, from Kaladi, Kerala, propounded Advaita (Non-dualism). He explained maya as the concept that all creation is illusory; from a true point of view, there is no creator and no difference between cause and effect, as everything is an imposition on the Brahman. Sankara became a legendary figure, traveling India to establish mathas at Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri, and the Himalayas. Though a monist, he authorized the worship of five deities and wrote beautiful hymns, such as the Ganga stotra and Charpat panjarika stotra, the latter being a warning regarding the transitoriness of life.
Ramanuja, born in Sriperambadur, propounded Vishistadvaitavad (Qualified Monism) to establish the supremacy of bhakti over Sankara's doctrines. After facing persecution from Chola rulers like Koluttunga I (Krimikantha), he settled in Mysore and converted the Jain King Brittideva to Vaishnavism. Ramanuja was a liberal leader who admitted untouchables, Buddhists, and Jains into his fold. He ruled over episcopal thrones and had ascetics, monks, and nuns as followers. His successors integrated Tamil religious poetry into the national consciousness by writing commentaries on the Divya-Prabandham and Nammalwar's Sahasra-giti in Sanskrit.